Beyond "Poldark" - The Life and Times of Cornish Tin Miners

By Mary Dodge Allen

Through Ancestry research, I learned that my great, great grandfather Nicholas and his brother Thomas were tin miners from Cornwall, England, and they emigrated to North America with their young families in the 1880's.

I've seen the BBC Drama Series Poldark, which vividly depicts the difficult lives of Cornish tin miners during the time frame of 1783 - 1801. But I wanted to learn more.

What were the lives of Cornish tin miners really like?

Photo of Cornish tin miner in 1800's (Public Domain)

This photo of a Cornish tin miner (above) was probably taken some time after the 1870's, when photographers began capturing images of Cornish towns and local life. Note that he's wearing only a lightweight 'bowler' style hat. Safety helmets didn't come into use until decades later.

To get a firsthand look at what Cornish life was like, I recently flew to Cornwall with my husband, and we spent a week with a Cornish tour guide, learning about the history of this land. The highlight was touring a former tin mine near the area where my ancestors lived. (Cornwall is located in the far southwestern corner of England.)

Cornwall is highlighted in red on this map. (Public Domain) 

We toured the Geevor Tin Mine and Museum near Penzance, Cornwall (family photo)

The Life of a Cornish Tin Miner in the 1800's

Cornish tin miners, circa early 1800's (Public Domain)

This early photo of Cornish miners (above) shows the use of candles as head lamps. Note the flimsy head covering - bowler hats and head scarves.

Tin and copper miners worked 12-hour shifts underground in hot, damp conditions, breathing in rock/mineral dust. Lung diseases were common, and good medical care was scarce. Because the heat in these mines could approach 100 F (degrees Fahrenheit), many miners worked without shirts.

Cornish tin miners, circa 1800's (Public Domain)

After these long shifts, weary miners often walked long distances to home, stumbling in the dark, across uneven ground, with only a "miner's lantern" - a candle placed in an old treacle-tin (molasses can) pierced with holes.

Pierced treacle-tin candle lantern (Public Domain) 

In 1842, Mr. Jory Henwood wrote a letter to the Royal Commission, set up to investigate mining conditions in Cornwall:

"I have known instances, where men who had to remain in an atmosphere of 96 F [degrees] whilst at their employ, at a late hour of the night had to walk three miles to their homes. Some of them were too poor to be well clad, and after so frightful a transition of temperature and so long a walk against a fierce and biting wind have often reached home without a fire and had to creep to bed with no more nourishing food and drink than barley-bread or potatoes with cold water."

Cornish Mining Families

Cornish miners often married young, many of them at age 16 (sometimes hurried along by a pregnancy). Even though child mortality was high, due to disease and lack of nutrition, these early marriages produced large families. Boys as young as ten years old (and younger) were sent to work in the mines to support the family. They worked long shifts, hauling ore carts and carrying tools and water up and down steep, unstable wooden ladders.

A ladder in an old Cornish tin mine (Public Domain)

Many women, both married and unmarried, worked for the mines on the surface, breaking apart rocks and working as 'pickers' sorting the high quality ore from the poor quality. (Cassiterite is the heavy ore that contains tin.) These women workers were called "Bal maidens" ('bal' is the Cornish word for 'mine'). Young girls also worked on the surface, sorting the cassiterite ore from rubble.

Cassiterite ore containing tin (family photo)

On Left: Drawing of 'Bal maidens' shoveling ore. On Right: Photo of 'Bal maidens' (Public Domain)

Cornish Family Diet

Cornish mining families were often too poor to afford butcher's meat like beef or mutton, or even wheat flour for bread, using the cheaper barley flour instead. Many miners kept their own pigs, and their wives and children tended small gardens, growing potatoes, carrots and turnips. At meals, only small amounts of pork were put into stews that were heaped with potatoes, to feed a family with several children.

A typical miner's breakfast consisted of barley gruel and hot tea. (If black tea was too expensive, they drank an herbal tea of brewed blackberry leaves or dried heather.) A miner's dinner might include fish - usually salted pilchard (Cornish sardine) - and eggs, potatoes or boiled turnips.

Note: Cornish pilchard fishing was depicted in Season 1, Episode 4 of Poldark. Clifftop watchmen, called 'huers' scanned the sea, looking for dark masses of pilchard shoals (schools). When one was spotted, the huer shouted "Hevva!" to alert the fishing crews, who would then row out and capture masses of pilchards in nets. The harvested fish were heavily salted and kept in barrels, weighed down, to help preserve them as food for several months.

Salted pilchards in a barrel (Public Domain)

Tin Miner's Mid-day Meals

In earlier times, miners didn't take food or drink underground. But in the 1800's, men began taking a "kag" of water and a snack like "hoggan" (a heavy cake of barley flour and water, baked without leavening) - a dense cake that might kill a man who hadn't gotten accustomed to it as a youth.

Eventually, the "Cornish pasty" (sounds like "last-y") became the preferred mid-day meal for tin miners. It is a baked, half-moon shaped pastry of wheat or barley four, filled with diced meat and vegetables like potatoes and turnips. Its distinctive crimped edge gave miners a convenient hand-hold while eating it.

Cornish pasties (Public Domain)

The crimped crust as a hand-hold also protected miners from ingesting arsenic. (Tin and copper ores contain high levels of arsenic, and the hands of miners would be covered with it.) After eating the pasty, the crimped crust could be discarded. 

Eight Interesting Facts about Cornish Tin Mining:

1. Cornish mining can be traced back to the Bronze Age, 2100 BC.

Bronze is an alloy of tin and copper, and both metals were mined in Cornwall. The ancient Greek historian, Diodorus Siculus, described tin mining in Cornwall and the foreign trade of tin in his historical masterpiece, Bibliotheca historica:

"The people of the promontory of Britain called Belerion [west Cornwall] are friendly... and, from their contact with foreign merchants, are civilized in their way of life. They carefully work the ground from which they extract the tin."

The Bibliotheca historica (Public Domain)

2. Cornish tin mining methods changed over the centuries.

From the Bronze Age to approx. 1400 AD - Surface mining called "Streaming"

When alluvial deposits of cassiterite were found in river valleys, nearby streams were diverted to wash away the debris, leaving behind the heavier cassiterite ore. It was then pulverized and smelted at high temperatures in clay pits to extract the tin.

1400's - 1600's AD - Shallow mining

As riverbed deposits grew scarcer, miners began digging shallow underground shafts to mine veins of cassiterite ore embedded in bedrock.

1600's - 1900's AD - Underground mining

In 1689, Thomas Epsley introduced the use of gunpowder to shatter dense rock like granite. Blasting allowed miners to go deeper underground to follow the veins of tin and copper ore. (Tin and copper ores are often found together.)

3. A steam engine designed in Cornwall - the "Cornish engine" - allowed access to deeper ore veins and helped improve water drainage and prevent flooding.

By the mid-1700's, steam engines were being used to pump out the underground water in deep mines. But in the early 1800's, Richard Trevithick developed a steam engine even more powerful than James Watt's improved steam engine. This "Cornish engine" used higher-pressure steam more efficiently and retained a greater amount of the energy it generated.

Below is a photo of an abandoned 'Engine House' and its chimney stack (built to house a Cornish engine). It was part of the "South Phoenix Mine," near Liskeard, Cornwall. 

Engine house of South Phoenix Mine (family photo)

4. Cornish tin miners were given specific rights by the Crown

In 1201, King John granted a "Charter of Liberties to the Tinners of 
Cornwall and Devon." This was known as the "Stannary Charter," ('stannum' is the Latin word for 'tin'). It established the legal rights of tin miners - "tinners." It also created a separate Stannary government, with its own taxation system, law courts and Parliament.

In 1305, King Edward I granted Cornwall its own "Stannary Charter," strengthening the rights of Cornish tinners to dig for tin on all land, public or private. The taxes on tin were levied by Cornwall's Stannary system and then sent to the Duke of Cornwall.

5. By the late 1800's, Cornwall's mines were producing more than half the arsenic in the world.

Arsenic is created as a by-product of processing copper and tin. (Since it is so poisonous, miners often applied a layer of clay to their skin as protection.) Arsenic was used in making clear glass, wood preservatives, insecticides, ammunition, pigments and dyes. 

6. Many Cornish mines are called 'Wheals."

Often the word 'wheal' precedes the name of a Cornish tin mine. 'Wheal' is the Cornish word for 'a place of work.' The two fictional mines in the BBC Series Poldark were called 'Wheal Leisure' and 'Wheal Grace.'

7. Cornish tin mines extended for miles underground and had several levels.

'Wheal Owles' and the iconic engine houses on the clifftop at Botallack, Cornwall were used to represent 'Wheal Leisure' in Poldark. In the 1850's, work began at this mine, extracting tin and minerals. At its height, it had 29 miles of levels and 11 steam engines at the site.

"Wheal Owles" tin mine near Botallack, Cornwall (Public Domain)

Besides walking miles to and from the mines, Cornish miners often had to walk long distances through cramped underground shafts to get to the current work site at the mine. 

Mine tunnel at Geevor Tin Mine (family photo)

I took this photo (above) as I walked through a cramped tunnel 260 feet long, while touring the Geevor Tin Mine. I had to hunch over, and watch my step on the uneven ground. This tunnel was well-lit, but it would have been hazardous to walk through this dark tunnel with only the dim light of candles or miner's lanterns.

8. Cornwall has a new mining opportunity - Lithium mining.

Lithium is a key component in electric cars and other rechargeable batteries used in smartphones, tablets and laptops. Plans are in the works to open mines in Cornwall to extract this valuable metallic element.

My Cornish Ancestors

Being in Cornwall, the land of my family, was an emotional experience for me. It is a beautiful place, with quaint towns and a stunning coastline of rugged cliffs and ocean views. Touring the Geevor Tin Mine and its museum helped me to understand the difficult working conditions my ancestors might have endured.

In the mid-to-late 1800's, Cornwall's tin and copper mining industry began declining. Cornish miners were known for their expertise in hard rock mining, and many were recruited by mine owners in North America. 

My great, great grandfather Nicholas and his brother Thomas emigrated to Canada, to work in the copper mines in Ontario. A few years later, both brothers and their families moved to Michigan's upper peninsula (UP), to work in the copper mines in Keweenaw County. 

Many Cornish mining families settled in Michigan's UP. I ate my first "Cornish pasty" in the UP of Michigan. It was baked by my great aunt, according to the family recipe.

In my Blog next month, on November 5th, I will spotlight the Cornish pasty - its interesting history and its varied recipes.

______________________

Mary Dodge Allen is currently finishing her sequel to Hunt for a Hometown Killer. She's won a Christian Indie Award, an Angel Book Award, and two Royal Palm Literary Awards (Florida Writer's Association). She and her husband live in Central Florida. She is a member of American Christian Fiction Writers and Faith Hope and Love Christian Writers. 

Website: www.marydodgeallen.com

Recent release, anthology devotional: El Jireh, The God Who Provides

Mary's story, entitled: A Mother's Desperate Prayer, describes her struggle with guilt and despair after her young son is badly burned in a kitchen accident. When we are at the end of all we have, El Jireh provides what we need. 

Click the link below to purchase on Amazon:

https://www.amazon.com/El-Jireh-God-Who-Provides/dp/1963611608

Mary's novel: Hunt for a Hometown Killer won the 2022 Christian Indie Award, First Place - Mystery/Suspense; and the 2022 Angel Book Award - Mystery/Suspense.

Click the link below to buy Hunt for a Hometown Killer at Amazon.com:

Hunt For A Hometown Killer: A Novel: Allen, Mary Dodge: 9781952369704: Amazon.com: Books

Link to Mary's Spotlight Interview:   Mary Dodge Allen Author Spotlight EA Book

Lessons We Can Learn From History: The Jewish Holocaust, Part 2

By Donna Wichelman

(Part II of a two-part series on the Raffle of the 10th of January 1944 (roundup of Jews) in the Gironde, France. See Part I, from September 4, 2026.)

In September, the first of a two-part article appeared in this blog about the Raffle, or roundup, of the 10th of January 1944 in German-occupied France, specifically Libourne in the Gironde. This past 10th of January marked the 82nd Anniversary of the event—something most of us find difficult to talk about because it’s so horrific. This two-part article is the story of one Jewish woman’s survival during one of the darkest times in our world’s history and how she has redeemed the abomination of the past.

Mme Josette Melinon and Donna: October 2023, Donna's Gallery

Mme Josette Melinon was only three years old when the French Vichy government, in collaboration with the German-occupied forces, rounded up 335 Jewish men, women, and children in the Bordeaux region. Two days later, 317 people were sent to Drancy Internment Camp outside of Paris and then deported to Auschwitz a few weeks later. Most of Josette’s extended family were part of that group, including her grandmother Kami and Kami’s brother.

Mme Josette Melinon and her Father: Mme Melinon's Archives

Kami’s brother was married to a Catholic wife, which gave his wife and children status as Catholics since religious affiliation was passed down through the mother’s side. Her brother retained Jewish status since his mother was Jewish. That meant that Kami’s brother, along with most of Josette’s family were interred at Drancy.

Kami’s brother had a skin disease, so his daughter (a Catholic) traveled by train to Drancy to take care of him. The Germans toyed with them, saying she could stay with her father if two people volunteered to be set free. But, of course, the Germans kept those volunteers’ papers so they could arrest them again later. Unfortunately, despite her Catholic status, his daughter’s decision led to internment at Auschwitz with her father. Many families were lost that way. They would try to discover what happened to their relatives, but then the Germans would take them away as well.

Another cousin was expecting a baby at Drancy. When it came time for her to deliver, they sent her to Rothschild Hospital. But she never saw her baby.

In September's blog post, we learned that Josette’s mother had also been taken to Drancy. But her story took a different turn while interned there. You see, part of the cruelty the Germans imposed was a system by which they determined who would be sent to Auschwitz. Identity papers were marked with an A, B, C, or D. No one knew what the letters meant except the Germans. Those deported to Auschwitz had Bs by their names. 

Jewish Identification Papers: Mme Josette Melinon's Archives

Josette’s mother’s paper had been marked with a B. But someone had done a good deed, crossed out the B, and wrote an A. This meant she would not be deported, but would be a prisoner instead, working as a nurse in the children's ward of Rothschild Hospital. It would be a pivotal role for her.

The Germans came to the hospital every Saturday to check on who had gotten better and who had died. Josette’s mother became part of a Resistance group that hid the children, telling the soldiers they were dead or too sick with an infectious disease to be released. Then they would shuffle the children off to families or hide them under tables covered with sheets if they didn't have enough time to get them out.

Mme Mother (Middle) as a Nurse at Rothschild Hospital, Paris: Mme Melinon's Archives

At the liberation of Paris, Josette’s mother helped members of the Resistance when they were injured or shot down in the streets. Afterward, when she finally came home, she rarely talked about her experiences except with a cousin.

Though most of Josette’s family was deported, one relative escaped. He was Josette’s cousin Myriam Errerra’s younger brother, Enri. When officials came to take the family away, he was in the house upstairs and didn’t move. He quickly got out of the house and walked along the roof until he could get down and find some friends he knew. They put him on a train to get him away from the trouble. Though guilt haunted him for years, his escape meant he could help others in the Resistance. 

Myriam and Enri Errerra as Children: Mme Melinon's Archives

Though Enri found friendships in the Resistance, his son told Josette that they always put him in the most dangerous places. They’d say, “He’s just a Jew,” a sign that even within the ranks of those fighting to win the war, racism wasn’t far from their doorstep.

Enri Errerra and Wife: Josette Melinon's Gallery

Fast-forward sixty years to 2004, when a teacher in Libourne took their middle school class to see an exhibition of Jewish children deported to Auschwitz. One of those children came from Libourne. The girl turned out to be Mme Melinon's cousin, Myriam Errera. When Mme Melinon realized the heartfelt desire of the class to understand the past, she became passionate about creating a foundation named after her cousin—the Association Souvenir Myriam Errera. The Association not only provides educational resources on the Jewish Holocaust, but it’s also a way to memorialize those who died.

Since the association's founding, a local school has been named after Myriam Errera. Josette also travels to the community schools each year to speak about the roundups, and the classes have a unit that addresses racism and anti-Semitism. In addition, every year, Libourne has a calendar of events that commemorate the Jewish Holocaust as well as the liberation of Libourne on 28 August 1944. See: Association Myriam 1.docx and an Article Published in Le Résistant on the Jewish Holocaust.

Libourne Commemoration Event: Mme Melinon's Archives

Page of Brochure from Mme Melinon's History Class: Mme Melinon's Archives

After hearing Josette's story, I asked her what she would say to the younger generation today about that time in history. She said she tells them it's important to realize not everything they hear in the media or online is true. Look at the people who followed Hitler without questioning what they were being told. It's the same with fake news today. Analyze what you see and hear and test it to see if it is true. Especially given how AI has invaded our world, I would have to agree with Josette.

I leave this blog with a letter from Myriam's father on their way to Auschwitz in February 1944. He threw it out the train window with the hope someone would find it and deliver it to her grandfather: 

We’re going away from Drancy today towards Metz and we will be in Dresden or Czechoslovakia. We send you back the money we have, because they took away all our money, jewels, the food we had in cans, they took 810 francs… the rest was saved as you can see. We’re 60 people in the carriage ... Everyone in families, thank goodness. There are quite a lot of people who are ill. Happily, until now we’ve been saved from this. The stay in Drancy was not too bad. We hope this war will soon end. We don’t know where we stay or if this letter and its contents comes to you. Thank God, because I suppose afterward you will not get any news and we won’t get out of this to get them to you. I hope you have as much courage as we do, because our courage here is magnificant to see, and our morale is excellent. We regret all our beasts [animals] that we’ve left behind. We hope that Marcel and you will take care of our little cat…Courage and come back soon. We kiss you hundreds and hundreds of times.

 Leonce Errerra 

Letter Written by Leonce Errerra to His Family in February 1944: Mme Melinon's Archives

 

Donna is an Angel Book Award-winning author of historical romance for A Song of Deliverance. Book 2, Rhythms of the Heart, is an interconnected stand-alone set in the same Victorian mining community of Georgetown, Colorado.

Weaving history and faith into stories of intrigue and redemption grew out of Donna's love of travel, history, and literature as a young adult while attending an international college in Wales, U.K. She enjoys developing plots that show how God's love abounds even in the profoundly difficult circumstances of our lives. Her stories reflect the hunger in all of us for love, belonging, and forgiveness.

Donna was a communications professional before becoming a full-time writer. Her short stories and articles have appeared in inspirational publications. Her romantic suspense novels, Light Out of Darkness and Undaunted Valor in her Waldensian Series, are available on Amazon. 

Donna and her husband of forty-one years participate in ministry at their local church in Colorado. They love spending time with their grandchildren and often bike, kayak, and travel. 

 

Norton I, Emperor of the United States by Nancy J. Farrier

 

What!! An Emperor of the United States. We are a democracy and have a president, not an emperor. Right? You might be surprised to find out we did have an unofficial Emperor, Norton I, who declared himself Emperor, September 17, 1859.

Joshua Abraham Norton was born in Britain, but grew up in South Africa when his parents moved there. In 1849, Norton headed for San Francisco, as did many who were interested in the gold rush. However, Norton didn’t try to pan for gold. Instead, he made money in real estate, turning his original investment funds in to a quarter million dollar fortune. 

In 1853, Norton tried to cash in on a rice shortage. His scheme came to naught when unexpected ships arrived in the harbor laden with rice. Norton lost everything and had to declare bankruptcy. For the next few years, no one heard anything from Norton.

Then in 1859, Norton made his big announcement. Wearing a navy uniform, complete with gold epaulets, he marched in a regal manner down the streets of San Francisco. He put this message in the San Francisco Bulletin newspaper, “At the peremptory request and desire of a large majority of the citizens…I, Joshua Norton…declare and proclaim myself Emperor of these United States.” His message further stated he would make alterations to the laws of the union to eradicate the evils of the country. 

The Bulletin printed the statement more as a joke than a serious claim, or Imperial decree. Over the next two decades, Norton I would take his reign seriously.  Citizens and visitors to San Francisco were treated to Norton’s grandiose behavior. People often greeted him on the streets with a bow. The city directory listed his occupation as Emperor. The newspaper printed his imperial proclamations and sought out news on him, because he sold papers.

Norton I with Bummer and Lazarus

One of Norton I’s, first decrees after becoming Emperor, was presumptuous to say the least. It read, “fraud and corruption prevent a fair and proper expression of the public voice…in consequence of which, we do hereby abolish Congress.” To Norton’s dismay, the leaders of the U.S. continued to meet. He then called for Gen. Winfield Scott to march on Washington and rout the legislators. The following year, he announced he had dissolved the democracy and instituted a monarchy, with himself as the head. He also added “Protector of Mexico” to his title.

As Norton’s popularity grew, stores sold photos and dolls of the emperor. Restaurants would waive his bill if he would allow them to post his imperial seal of approval of their establishment. When he attended plays, he was given one of the best seats in the house gratis, because his presence in the audience drew more of a crowd. 

In 1871, a printing house ran off special currency with Emperor Norton I, displaying his imperial seal. Although Norton remained very poor, people often gave him money in the guise of “paying taxes” to the realm. Norton passed out notes as his government bonds to people, and those papers continue to bring a handsome price today. 

One of Norton’s most famous edicts, caused quite a stir, years after his death. In the early 1870’s, Norton proclaimed that the city should construct a bridge between San Francisco and Oakland. At the time, his proclamation was considered impossible and ignored. His decree came to fruition in 1936 when the Bay Bridge was built. There have been efforts to rename the bridge in honor of Norton I. 

The Emperor spent his days among his subjects. He would play chess, visit libraries, or attend churches, but much of his time he spent walking his dogs, Bummer and Lazarus, about San Francisco. It was on one of these walks that Emperor Norton I dropped dead in the street of a stroke. The headline in the newspaper declared, “Norton the First, by the grace of God, Emperor of the United States and Protector of Mexico, departed this life.” Over 10,000 of his loyal subjects attended his funeral, many having enjoyed the eccentric man. 

Both Robert Louis Stevenson and Mark Twain wrote Norton I into one of their books. Twain used the Emperor as the model for his character, King, in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.

In 1980, San Francisco marked the 100^th anniversary of Emperor Norton I’s death. They had a ceremony at Market and Montgomery streets.

Have you ever heard of Emperor Norton I? Do you recall the character Mark Twain used in his book? I would love to hear your thoughts about Emperor Norton I.

Nancy J Farrier is an award-winning, New York Times best-selling author who lives in Southern Arizona in the Sonoran Desert. She loves the Southwest with its interesting historical past. When Nancy isn’t writing, she loves to read, do needlecraft, play with her cats and dog, and spend time with her family. You can read more about Nancy and her books on her website: nancyjfarrier.com.

All Things Pacific Northwest: Sacagawea

by Heidi Ennis

Welcome to All Things PNW—AKA things Heidi obsesses over and needs a captive audience to talk about. 😊 So here we are.

For my first post, I’d love to spend a little time with one of my favorite (and maybe least understood) women of American history: Sacagawea.


Courtesy U.S. National Parks
Sacagawea and Jean Baptiste, Salmon, Idaho.
Sculpture by Agnes Vincen Talbot. NPS photo, public domain.

Sacagawea doesn’t belong only to the Pacific Northwest, of course. But the Corps of Discovery forever changed the culture—and soon the landscape—of the Columbia River region. So I claim dibs on a mini Sacagawea history lesson.

First, a disclaimer: Sacagawea’s true story is still passionately debated. Even her name is debated. How to pronounce it. What it means. In Hidatsa, Sacagawea means Bird Woman, but in Shoshone her name translates as Canoe Launcher.

Much of what we know comes from the Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, accounts shaped by the perspectives, translations, and prejudices of the men who wrote them. Then upon returning home, the journals were edited.

Modern Historians now look to Native oral histories and tribal traditions. The MHA Sacagawea Project Board, representing the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara peoples, is working to preserve and clarify her story. You can read more here.

What do we know?

Sacagawea was young, probably only sixteen or seventeen when she traveled west with Lewis and Clark. According to the commonly told account, she had been taken from her people during a raid as a child and later married Toussaint Charbonneau, a French-Canadian fur trader possibly thirty years her senior. 🙁

And then—because apparently this adventure wasn’t difficult enough—she had a baby. Sacagawea gave birth to her son, Jean Baptiste Charbonneau, on February 11, 1805, at Fort Mandan.

Here is one of those historical details you simply cannot make up.

Her labor was long and painful, and Captain Lewis recorded one of the men in their group suggested that she be given a small amount of crushed rattlesnake rattle mixed with water in hopes of speeding things along. Of course someone had one, she took it, and ten minutes later, the baby was born. Hmmm.

Two months later, Sacagawea headed west with the expedition, carrying tiny Jean Baptiste. Sixteen years old. A newborn. The Rocky Mountains. Thirty-some armed soldiers and frontiersmen. Sounds relaxing.

Then came one of those moments that makes my novelist brain go absolutely crazy.

When the expedition reached the Shoshone in 1805, Sacagawea discovered that their chief, Cameahwait, was her brother. Can you imagine? She had been taken away as a child. Years had passed. She had married and become a mother—and suddenly there he was.

The Corps desperately needed horses to cross the mountains, and Sacagawea’s connection with the Shoshone helped establish trust.

Remember playing telephone as a kid? That's kind of what they did...

During negotiations, a message might travel from Lewis in English, to François Labiche in French, to Charbonneau in Hidatsa, to Sacagawea in Shoshone—and then all the way back again. Try negotiating for horses that way. But they did it, probably more because of Sacagawea's connection to the tribe, then the telephone game.

But by October 1805, the Corps was descending the Columbia River toward the Pacific.

Imagine seeing a large group of armed strangers approaching in canoes—and then noticing a young woman carrying a baby among them. That mattered.

In fact, Clark recorded an encounter in which a PNW tribe who had initially hidden in fear became less afraid after seeing Sacagawea and her child. Her presence meant peace.

“the sight of This Indian woman, wife to one of our interprs. confirmed those people of our friendly intentions, as no woman ever accompanies a war party of Indians in this quarter”

I love that. Sometimes simply her being there changed the conversation.

Eventually the Corps reached Fort Clatsop, near present-day Astoria, Oregon, where they spent the winter of 1805–06.


Reconstruction of Fort Clatsop, winter encampment of the Corps of Discovery,
Lewis and Clark National Historical Park.
National Park Service photo, public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

Have you been to Astoria in winter? This is not Palm Springs, folks.

In fact, Patrick Gass complained that during their months there, they experienced only twelve rain-free days. And only six with any sunshine. Rain. Mud. Wet clothes. Smoke. Illness. And Sacagawea had a baby.

She was T. O. U. G. H.

After the expedition, Sacagawea’s story becomes frustratingly murky.

The traditional documentary account says she died at Fort Manuel in 1812, at about twenty-five. But some Native oral traditions tell a different story: the woman who died may have been Sacagawea’s sister—also one of Charbonneau’s wives—and Sacagawea may have lived many more years, with additional children and grandchildren.

More than two hundred years later, we still don’t know exactly how her story ended.

But her son, Jean Baptiste, had quite a life of his own. Educated in St. Louis, he spent years in Europe before returning West as a guide, interpreter, and mountain man. He died in eastern Oregon in 1866.

Here's one final fun fact: Seaman.

I have decided this is how Sacagawea and baby Jean Baptiste survived the whole ordeal... they had a dog.

Seaman with Lewis and Clark, St. Charles, Missouri.
Dr. David Goodrich/NOAA Photo Library,
via Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 2.0.

Seaman was Meriwether Lewis’s enormous Newfoundland who crossed the continent with the Corps. Funny story: Someone even tried to steal him near the Columbia River on the return journey. He chased away bison and bears. But how did they get him in those canoes?

Finally, this is what stays with me most about Sacagawea. History can debate her name, her family, even the length of her life. Huge pieces of who she was have simply disappeared from the written record.

But she was never unknown to God.

He knew the frightened child taken from home. He knew the young woman carrying her baby across mountains and rivers. He knew every loss, every reunion, every ordinary day that no explorer thought important enough to write down.

And He knew the rest of her story—the parts history lost.

So many lives vanish from the pages of history. But never from the heart of the One who made us.

Until next time,

Heidi
Psalm 19:14





Heidi Ennis writes faith-filled historical fiction set along the Columbia River, where faith, hope, and love unfold in the rugged wilderness of the Pacific Northwest. Inspired by real history and the wild beauty of the region she calls home, she writes stories filled with danger, courage, faith, and unexpected love.

When she’s not writing, Heidi is usually exploring forest trails and river valleys with coffee in hand and a dog or two nearby, gathering bits of Pacific Northwest history for her next story.

Follow Heidi for new releases, sneak peeks, and stories that lift the heart.
At the Foot of Mountains

Echoes of the Ancient New Testament Cities: Alexandria

Matthew J. Elliott

AI Illustration of Alexandria

It has been over two years since I released my novel, The Cyprus Journal, featuring John Mark as the main character. As I dove into history, researching everything I possibly could to bring that novel to life, I discovered historical information about a journey that the character could have taken to the city of Alexandria. 

Everything within me wanted to tell that story right then and there, but for one reason or another, I ended up focusing that story on his Journey’s to Cyprus. I still plan to go back there some day, but because there was no historical fact-checker confirming this story actually took place, I believe it may be more of a fictional possibility. 

Alexandria is one of those cities that simply fascinates me. It feels like a place where cultures meet, ideals collide, and faith finds its foundational beat. There is a lot of history behind this city, but for the sake of this series, I think it's best to stay within the New Testament timeline.  I have briefly spoken about this city before over the years as a blogger for this community, but I have never dove deep enough into the history surrounding Alexandria until... well… today, or the day you are reading this article. 

The first biblical hint of Alexandria's connection to Christianity appears at Pentecost. Oddly enough, this little story shows up in my upcoming book titled A Broken Embrace. Among the crowd hearing Peter’s sermon were visitors from Alexandria. (Acts 2:5-12). Many scholars believe this included Jews from Alexandria. 

Inside the Library of Alexandria - Britannica

Why? Well, because Alexandria had one of the biggest Jewish communities outside of Judea. If this is true, then it would have been these visitors who carried the message of Jesus back to Alexandria before any missionary found their way there. 

The city of Alexandria is only mentioned four times in scripture, and only in the book of Acts. That doesn't give us a lot of scriptural background, but it does give us enough to dig deep into historical resources to learn more. The clearest biblical narrative for the city of Alexandria is Apollos. (Acts 18:24-28). 

Luke describes him as mighty in the Scriptures and as a man shaped by the intellectual culture of his city. Apollos is the first named Christian from Alexandria, and is a reminder to us all that the gospel did not only grow because of fishermen and tax collectors, but also among scholars and deep thinkers. This also tells us something important about the city. Christianity in Alexandria likely began within the Jewish community, then gradually expanded outward as Gentiles encountered its message. 

Scripture never tells us the story of a missionary journey to Egypt, but that does not mean it did not happen. Alexandrian Jews regularly traveled to the city. We first hear about that during Stephen’s story. (Acts 6:8-10). Ships sailed constantly between Alexandria and the port cities of the coast of Cyprus, Judea, and Italy. Some of the stories we remember about people traveling on ships during the missionary journeys were about traveling on Alexandrian Ships. (Acts 27:1-6; 28:11-15)

Most historians agree that Christianity arrived in the city very shortly after Pentecost and between 30-40 AD. They believe it began quietly without the drama we see in the Acts of the Apostles. I like that idea. Small groups meeting in homes. Scriptures being openly taught. Faith growing in the margins of a city known for its libraries, philosophical schools, lighthouses. Sounds kind of nice. While it wasn’t always that way. It is believed that this is how it all began. 

Now to the reason I brought John Mark into this article in the first place. While this is a story that I could not back up with historical fact, it is a tradition shaped by centuries of Egyptian Christian Memory. The story goes that John Mark, the man who abandoned Saul and Barnabas, went back to Jerusalem after the first missionary journey and then, years later, before the council of elders, traveled to Alexandria on a mission assigned to him by Peter and James.  

Alexandrian Cobbler (Shoemaker)

There, he met a humble cobbler named Anianus, whose hand was wounded while repairing John Mark's own Sandal. As payment for the repair, John Mark tended to his needs and shared the gospel from the cobbler's home. According to this tradition, that home became the first gathering place for Alexandrian believers. 

Is this a viable answer to how the church began? I can’t completely claim that, but I can claim that regardless of the truth behind it, there is absolutely a deep meaning to it. According to the traditional view, this story was passed down for ages, and it reflects a deep truth about the gospel movement. God often begins great works through quiet encounters and ordinary people. Whether or not John Mark personally founded the church in Alexandria, this story captures the heart of the early church. 

Between 38 and 66 AD, Alexandria erupted into sporadic violence, culminating alongside the Judean revolt. This instability fractured local communities. Early believers, still viewed within the broader Jewish community, navigated a city where their identity carried life-or-death risks. Even as the church grew, this crisis touched every household. The resilience forged at its birth rooted believers in faith through these trials with Rome. 

The birth of the church may have included the story of the cobbler, and it may not have. One thing for certain is that it was shaped by men and women we will never know. Alexandria teaches us that the gospel needs willing hearts, open homes, and the courage to follow Christ in a world that does not always understand. Those seeds grow in unexpected places, through unexpected people, and through movements that shape history.

 ~ Biography ~

Matthew James Elliott (M.J. Elliott) is a passionate writer who loves to encourage and inspire others. He served in various ministry roles for over 15 years, which gave him a unique perspective on people and Biblical History. Matthew holds a degree in Biblical Studies from Oklahoma Wesleyan University, with a focus on Pastoral Care, Christian Education, and Worship.

Matthew is married and has three wonderful children who bring him immense joy and inspiration. One of his favorite things to do with them is to share stories they can someday learn from. When writing a story, he aspires to minister to others with love, equip them with encouragement, and use the gift God has given him as a writer to help readers experience God in a real and meaningful way.

Find Matthew on Amazon, Goodreads, Facebook, BookBub, and His Website. He has written Devotionals, An Episodic Series, Novellas, and Commentaries for The Gospel Daily.

~ Highlighted Release ~

It has been a while since I highlighted this release, but starting 10/14, it will be on sale. If you want a reminder, I will be announcing the discounted price in my monthly newsletter.

One Young Man. His Significant Story. A Witness of the Early Church.

Many knew him as the young cousin to Barnabas the Encourager, the son of Mary who offered her home to honor the Savior and those who followed Him, or even the man who abandoned Paul on his First Missionary Journey, but there is more to his story. His story is one of new beginnings, a promise fulfilled, and a man who overcame fear of the unknown.