Roman Citizenship, the Gold Standard

By Liisa Eyerly

Historical authors and readers must navigate a murky and treacherous landscape when writing. Murky because we don’t know all the facts and nuances of any period. So much has been lost to the melting ice cubes of time. Treacherous, because peering into the past confronts us with the impossible task of disconnecting from our present-day selves, modern ideas, and our evolved knowledge base.

Suspending moral judgment on the culture, rules, and practices of the Roman Empire, 2,000 years ago, can be especially challenging. Developing characters while distancing them from modern-age perspectives can be difficult. Depicting beliefs where slavery is neither right nor wrong, simply an accepted way of life; or exposing newborns to nature to die, as a common-sense solution for unwanted children; or their choice of mass capital punishment, ignites moral outrage. Is there a limit to how far we can suspend our beliefs, especially when it comes to our values, good and bad, right and wrong?

But to be fair to the times, we must try as much as possible.

Modern democracies work hard to include all citizens in their country's rights and responsibilities, with equality for all, a laudable goal. But Roman society was anything but equal. It was based on a ladder of legal identities, a tiered system of status, and privilege.

Almost every aspect of a person’s life was governed by their legal designation, and Roman Citizenship was at the top, the gold standard of privilege, power, and rights. And unsurprisingly, a major catalyst for power struggles, resentment, and rebellion in the Roman world.

A. Roman Citizens (Cives Romani)  

* Full rights and protections
* Included elites, veterans, colonists—and some provincials
* Women were citizens too, though without voting or office-holding rights

B. Latins (Latini) Originally from Italy, later expanded
* Partial rights- a “citizenship-adjacent” status
* Could trade and own property
* Sometimes eligible for citizenship after holding local office

C. Freedmen (Liberti)
* Former slaves who had been legally freed
* Became Roman citizens, but with limits:
     * Could not hold high office
     * Owed loyalty and service to former masters
* Their children, however, were full citizens

D. Provincials (Peregrini)  

* The majority of the empire
* Free people, but not citizens
* Governed by local laws, not Roman civil law
* Vulnerable to:
     * Torture
     * Summary punishment
     * Exploitative taxation
* Could gain citizenship through:
     * Military service
     * Imperial favor
     * Collective grants to cities

E. Slaves (Servi)
* Considered property, not persons
* Not determined by race or ethnicity
* No legal rights
* Could be punished, sold, abused, or killed (with some limits in later periods)
* Manumission (freeing a slave) was common—and strategic

Ironically, a freed slave could outrank a freeborn provincial in legal status. And it was one of Rome’s quiet engines for social change and mobility.  (Collared Roman slaves / Ashmolean Museum, Photo by Jun, Wikimedia Commons)

Why This Mattered for Christians

Christianity flattened social categories spiritually and sought to practice equality within the church, but Rome did not recognize or understand the religious rationale for Christian inclusiveness. Loyalty to Christ cut across Rome’s legal hierarchy; slaves shared the Lord’s supper with their masters, each serving the other on equal footing, and this terrified authorities. In the provinces like Ephesus, where my books take place, this legal gray zone was a powder keg and exactly the kind of fault line Rome cracked down on.

Christians included:    

* Slaves
* Women
* Foreigners
* A few citizens

Each of these legal designations included categories; even within the upper classes, women and children were typically at the bottom. Tune in next month for a look at the limits, challenges, and opportunities women of the Roman Empire faced.

Step into the shadowy streets of 96 AD Ephesus, where danger lurks around every corner, and the line between friend and foe is razor-thin. Fortunes of Death, plunges you into a world where faith is tested, alliances are shattered, and one woman's courage could be the difference between life and death.

Sabina, a fierce young Christian widow, is thrust into a deadly game when a wealthy citizen is murdered. With her friend’s life hanging in the balance, Sabina must unravel a web of lies, deceit, and hidden motives. Every clue she uncovers brings her closer to the truth—and closer to becoming the next victim.

This isn't just a murder mystery. It's a gripping tale of faith, resilience, and the power of one woman standing against the darkness.

Visit me at my website, on my Author Facebook page,

or purchase my books at:

Fortunes of Death

Obedient Unto Death

My Amazon book page

Liisa’s books have been called a cross between Agatha Christie and Francine Rivers. Her mystery novel, Obedient Unto Death, won the Eric Hoffer First Horizon Award for a debut novel and first place in the Spiritual Fiction category. The sequel, Fortunes of Death, continues the Secrets of Ephesus series, weaving fascinating Christian twists into the historical mystery genre of the first-century Roman Empire. Liisa’s travels to Turkey, Greece, and Italy have enriched her stories with vivid depictions of New Testament culture, history, and people.