Roman Citizenship, the Gold Standard

By Liisa Eyerly

Historical authors and readers must navigate a murky and treacherous landscape when writing. Murky because we don’t know all the facts and nuances of any period. So much has been lost to the melting ice cubes of time. Treacherous, because peering into the past confronts us with the impossible task of disconnecting from our present-day selves, modern ideas, and our evolved knowledge base.

Suspending moral judgment on the culture, rules, and practices of the Roman Empire, 2,000 years ago, can be especially challenging. Developing characters while distancing them from modern-age perspectives can be difficult. Depicting beliefs where slavery is neither right nor wrong, simply an accepted way of life; or exposing newborns to nature to die, as a common-sense solution for unwanted children; or their choice of mass capital punishment, ignites moral outrage. Is there a limit to how far we can suspend our beliefs, especially when it comes to our values, good and bad, right and wrong?

But to be fair to the times, we must try as much as possible.

Modern democracies work hard to include all citizens in their country's rights and responsibilities, with equality for all, a laudable goal. But Roman society was anything but equal. It was based on a ladder of legal identities, a tiered system of status, and privilege.

Almost every aspect of a person’s life was governed by their legal designation, and Roman Citizenship was at the top, the gold standard of privilege, power, and rights. And unsurprisingly, a major catalyst for power struggles, resentment, and rebellion in the Roman world.

A. Roman Citizens (Cives Romani)  

* Full rights and protections
* Included elites, veterans, colonists—and some provincials
* Women were citizens too, though without voting or office-holding rights

B. Latins (Latini) Originally from Italy, later expanded
* Partial rights- a “citizenship-adjacent” status
* Could trade and own property
* Sometimes eligible for citizenship after holding local office

C. Freedmen (Liberti)
* Former slaves who had been legally freed
* Became Roman citizens, but with limits:
     * Could not hold high office
     * Owed loyalty and service to former masters
* Their children, however, were full citizens

D. Provincials (Peregrini)  

* The majority of the empire
* Free people, but not citizens
* Governed by local laws, not Roman civil law
* Vulnerable to:
     * Torture
     * Summary punishment
     * Exploitative taxation
* Could gain citizenship through:
     * Military service
     * Imperial favor
     * Collective grants to cities

E. Slaves (Servi)
* Considered property, not persons
* Not determined by race or ethnicity
* No legal rights
* Could be punished, sold, abused, or killed (with some limits in later periods)
* Manumission (freeing a slave) was common—and strategic

Ironically, a freed slave could outrank a freeborn provincial in legal status. And it was one of Rome’s quiet engines for social change and mobility.  (Collared Roman slaves / Ashmolean Museum, Photo by Jun, Wikimedia Commons)

Why This Mattered for Christians

Christianity flattened social categories spiritually and sought to practice equality within the church, but Rome did not recognize or understand the religious rationale for Christian inclusiveness. Loyalty to Christ cut across Rome’s legal hierarchy; slaves shared the Lord’s supper with their masters, each serving the other on equal footing, and this terrified authorities. In the provinces like Ephesus, where my books take place, this legal gray zone was a powder keg and exactly the kind of fault line Rome cracked down on.

Christians included:    

* Slaves
* Women
* Foreigners
* A few citizens

Each of these legal designations included categories; even within the upper classes, women and children were typically at the bottom. Tune in next month for a look at the limits, challenges, and opportunities women of the Roman Empire faced.

Step into the shadowy streets of 96 AD Ephesus, where danger lurks around every corner, and the line between friend and foe is razor-thin. Fortunes of Death, plunges you into a world where faith is tested, alliances are shattered, and one woman's courage could be the difference between life and death.

Sabina, a fierce young Christian widow, is thrust into a deadly game when a wealthy citizen is murdered. With her friend’s life hanging in the balance, Sabina must unravel a web of lies, deceit, and hidden motives. Every clue she uncovers brings her closer to the truth—and closer to becoming the next victim.

This isn't just a murder mystery. It's a gripping tale of faith, resilience, and the power of one woman standing against the darkness.

Visit me at my website, on my Author Facebook page,

or purchase my books at:

Fortunes of Death

Obedient Unto Death

My Amazon book page

Liisa’s books have been called a cross between Agatha Christie and Francine Rivers. Her mystery novel, Obedient Unto Death, won the Eric Hoffer First Horizon Award for a debut novel and first place in the Spiritual Fiction category. The sequel, Fortunes of Death, continues the Secrets of Ephesus series, weaving fascinating Christian twists into the historical mystery genre of the first-century Roman Empire. Liisa’s travels to Turkey, Greece, and Italy have enriched her stories with vivid depictions of New Testament culture, history, and people.

Western Hearths: Sweet Winter Treats

February makes us long for the comforts of home.

The cold February winds make us yearn for the warmth of hearth and home. Throw in a sweet treat shared with loved ones and life is good. Wild West settlers appreciated these comforts too. Sugar would set a person back a pretty penny, but molasses, honey, and dried fruits could sweeten dishes for less. Molasses cake shared around the stove, fruit compote spooned over hot biscuits, or a pastry baked in a Dutch oven brought families together after a long day of work or comforted neighbors or weary travelers stopping by.

Sweetness Despite Scarcity

Typical western pioneer kitchen.

Pioneer cooks relied on modest equipment—a cast-iron skillet, a Dutch oven, or a simple pot over the fire. They transformed flour, lard or butter, a drizzle of molasses or a little sugar measured from the prized store, dried fruit, and maybe some eggs into welcome treats.

Settlers most often sweetened food with molasses, a staple that traveled well and stretched further than sugar. They treasured dried fruits, like apples, peaches, or berries, and used them sparingly. Supplies weren’t easy to come by, and a humble dessert could prove the highlight of a week. Sweets reminded families and guests of the comforts they’d left behind for the harsh life in the West.

Apple Brown Betty: A Winter Staple

Root cellars were often built into the side of a hill.

Fresh fruit was scarce during winter, but stored apples remained a reliable and cherished ingredient. Apple Brown Betty was a common Wild West dessert—simple, economical, and baked slowly to warm both hearth and hearts.

Ingredients

• 4 cups dried or stored apples, peeled and sliced
• 1 cup coarse bread crumbs or crumbled day-old bread
• ⅓ cup brown sugar or molasses sugar
• 1 teaspoon ground cinnamon
• ¼ teaspoon ground nutmeg (optional but period-appropriate)
• ¼ teaspoon salt
• ⅓ cup butter, lard, or rendered animal fat, melted
• ½ cup water or apple cider

Instructions

• Preheat your oven to 350°F (175°C). Grease an 8x8-inch baking dish or cast-iron pan.
• If using dried apples, soak them in warm water for 20–30 minutes until softened, then drain.
• In a bowl, mix bread crumbs, sugar, cinnamon, nutmeg, and salt.
• Layer half of the apples in the baking dish, followed by half of the bread mixture. Drizzle with half of the melted fat.
• Repeat layers with remaining apples, bread mixture, and fat.
• Pour water or cider evenly over the top.
• Cover loosely and bake for 30 minutes. Uncover and bake an additional 15–20 minutes, until the top is browned and the apples are tender.
• Let rest briefly before serving. Best eaten warm, plain or with a splash of milk or cream if available.

The History Behind the Recipe

Apple Brown Betty is a classic baked apple dessert with roots in early American kitchens, likely dating from the colonial era or the 18th century when apples and pantry ingredients like breadcrumbs, butter, and sugar were available. The dish embodies pioneer thrift and practicality. Spiced apples are layered with seasoned crumbs (often of bread or crackers) and baked until tender and bubbling. By the 19th century, the dish appeared in American cookbooks and household newspapers. 

Apple Brown Betty evolved with regional twists, including variations that used cornmeal crumbles for a sturdier texture. In the era of westward expansion and frontier homesteads, Brown Betty became a staple comfort food in taverns and farm kitchens, pairing with whipped cream or custard and serving as a simple, sturdy dessert for families and settlers alike.

Such desserts brought comfort and celebration, marking special occasions, holidays, or just the end of a long day of work. Families gathered around the table, sharing stories and enjoyment. A neighbor or traveler passing through might be offered a slice as a token of hospitality and kindness. The dish shows the ingenuity of the era. People made the most of what they had, improvising to create something joyous.

That lesson still resonates.

Bringing Pioneer Sweetness to Your Home

As you bake this dessert, picture hearth fires glowing, families wrapped in warmth and laughter or young couples savoring a quiet moment together. The "Western Hearths" blog series connects us with history through meals that nourish not only the body but also the heart and soul. Stop by on the 20th of each month for a new history-inspired recipe.

February is a month for sweetness, for reflection, and for love. People living in the Wild West cherished those moments too. Apple Brown Betty gives us a taste of the resourcefulness and heart of those who came before us.

Pull up a chair to your own hearth, and enjoy a slice of history—sweet, humble, and full of love.

About Janalyn Voigt 

Janalyn Voigt fell in love with literature at an early age when her father read chapters from classics as bedtime stories. When Janalyn grew older, she put herself to sleep with tales "written" in her head. Today Janalyn is a storyteller who writes in several genres. Romance, mystery, adventure, history, and whimsy appear in all her novels in proportions dictated by their genre. Janalyn Voigt is represented by Wordserve Literary.

Learn more about Janalyn, read the first chapters of her books, subscribe to her e-letter, and join her reader clubs at http://janalynvoigt.com.

Discover Montana Gold 

Based on actual historical events during a time of unrest in America, the Montana Gold series explores faith, love, and courage in the wild west. 

Servant Girls in the Gilded Age

by Susan G Mathis

To work “in service” meant living within the employer’s home—often a large brownstone in Manhattan, a country estate along the Hudson, or, for the fortunate, a genteel household in the blossoming summer retreats of the Thousand Islands or Long Island.

Their duties could be endless. A kitchen maid might rise before dawn to light the fires. A chambermaid scrubbed floors and emptied chamber pots. A parlor maid dusted the fine furniture and answered bells. A nursemaid tended to children who might have more toys than she’d ever seen in her life.

For girls who had grown up with little, these homes were both awe-inspiring and alien. They witnessed luxury firsthand—velvet drapes, china tea sets, and glittering chandeliers—but they belonged to none of it. Still, many found pride in their work, friendship in the kitchen, and a sense of purpose in doing their duties well.

The orphanages that sent these girls into service often gave them more than just training—they gave them a sense of faith and family. For girls between 13 and 16, this transition was both terrifying and defining. Some were mistreated or dismissed without cause. Others, through diligence and kindness, became trusted members of the households they served. A few even used their wages to attend night school or to help bring siblings or cousins from Ireland.

Through it all, they leaned on one another. Many corresponded with “sisters” from the orphanage, exchanging letters of encouragement and prayer—a sisterhood forged in hardship and strengthened by hope.

These Irish servant girls lived in a world divided by class and expectation. They were both insiders and outsiders—present at family dinners but invisible; indispensable to daily life but rarely acknowledged. Yet their contribution was immense.

Their stories remind us that history’s heroines are not always queens or reformers. Sometimes they are thirteen-year-old girls with work-roughened hands and steadfast hearts—lighting fires before dawn, whispering prayers beneath their breath, and believing that even a servant’s life could shine with purpose.

In my newest novel, Irish Rose Orphans’ Christmas, seven young women prepare their hearts for a deeper calling, and each young woman must face the truth of her past and the hope of her future.

ABOUT IRISH ROSE ORPHANS’ CHRISTMAS:

Seven young women experience their last Christmas together before stepping into lives of service. United by trials and an unbreakable bond, they’ve pledged to remain “forever sisters.” But as the season of parting approaches, buried wounds rise to the surface. When Sister Rose invites the girls to prepare their hearts during Advent for a deeper calling, each young woman must face the truth of her past and the hope of her future. This Christmas, seven orphans will discover that no matter where life leads them, love and faith will go with them.

ABOUT SUSAN:

Susan G Mathis is an international award-winning, multi-published author of stories set in the beautiful Thousand Islands in upstate NY. Susan has been published more than thirty times in full-length novels, novellas, and non-fiction books. She has sixteen in her fiction line. Susan is also a published author of two premarital books, stories in a dozen compilations, and hundreds of published articles. Susan lives in Northern Virginia and enjoys traveling the world. Visit www.SusanGMathis.com/fiction for more.

Inside the Pardon Palace

  by Tom Goodman

Kathy Bates as Ma Ferguson in The Highwaymen

Why let your loved one languish in a Texas prison when you could seek a pardon from the governor?

For a price.

That was the accusation leveled at Miriam “Ma” Ferguson. You may remember her from The Highwaymen. Kathy Bates portrayed the woman who became Texas’s first female governor in 1924—less than a decade after women gained the right to vote.

No Texas governor before or since has come close to her record on pardons granted. But it was a record shadowed by persistent rumors that Ma and her husband, James “Pa” Ferguson, operated a mercenary “Pardon Palace.”

Ma ran for governor after Pa was impeached and banned from office. Once elected, she made headlines—and enemies—through her expansive use of executive clemency. By the end of her first year, she had granted more than 1,200 pardons and commutations. The figure is striking when set against a Texas prison population of roughly 3,700 inmates at the time. 

Many more would follow.

Ferguson insisted this flood of mercy sprang from compassion and a belief in second chances. She and Pa condemned the brutality of Texas prisons and styled themselves reformers. Ma described her pardons as acts of Christian charity and later called her mercy toward “poor and unfortunate convicts” her proudest achievement.

That posture earned her loyal support, especially in rural communities where she was seen as a maternal figure. But resentment grew whenever a pardoned inmate reoffended.

One notorious example was Marvin “Buck” Barrow, brother of Clyde. Within weeks of his release, Buck reunited with Clyde and Bonnie Parker, returning to violent crime before dying in a bloody shootout that summer.

Another case proved even more damaging. In 1927, two men pardoned by Ferguson—Marshall Ratliff and Henry Helms—joined the gang responsible for the Santa Claus Bank Robbery in Cisco. Both had served only two years of long sentences for armed robbery. The daytime heist left two officers dead. Prosecutors argued that without Ferguson’s pardons, the killings would not have occurred. Juries gave both men death sentences. (To learn more about this infamous event, get a copy of my book, The Last Man: A Novel of the 1927 Santa Claus Bank Robbery.)

In hindsight, Ferguson’s legacy cuts both ways. Her willingness to extend mercy, especially to nonviolent offenders, looks progressive for her era. Yet rumors of pay-for-pardons never faded. One popular Austin story had Pa offering to sell a desperate father a shabby horse—hinting that if purchased, the man’s son “might ride home on it from Huntsville.”

Ma denied the accusations, but later investigations and memoirs proved the rumors true.

By the end of her second term in 1935, she had pardoned nearly 4,000 inmates. The following year, Texans amended the constitution to create an independent pardons board.

Her pardon record is an outlier that has never been matched by any other Texas governor before or since. In fact, historians often cite her as one of the most mercy-giving (or, to critics, most abusive) chief executives in American history.

For more on the Fergusons, check out Carol O'Keefe Wilson’s excellent book, In the Governor's Shadow: The True Story of Ma and Pa Ferguson.

Mrs. Amelia Stewart Wright Knight and her Oregan Trail Diary

 

I enjoy reading true stories, especially diaries. I purchased the book, Lillian Schlissel's Women's Diaries of the Westward Journey. Inside are wonderful excerpts from pioneer women's diaries. Their words bring their overland journeys across America to life.

 

Amelia Stewart knight was born in 1817 in Boston, Massachusetts. She married Dr. Joel Knight (b.1808) an English immigrant, in September,1834. They moved to Iowa after their first child was born. Dr. Knight hated the climate in Iowa. He took his family (now seven children) to Oregon Territory, where the climate was milder. They left Iowa April 18,1853 and arrived near Milwaukie, Oregon Territory, on September 17,1853. Six months on the trail. Can you imagine primitive camping with seven children for six months?

Amelia's diary shared a mother's view of their trip. Her diary focused on her children, the weather, and the rough terrain. She had an entry at least once a week. The Wrights had three covered wagons for their supplies and their seven children. Dr. Knight hired men to tend the wagons and their livestock. She had the daunting task of feeding everyone on their journey.

The Knights had more resources than other travelers because they had paid help. Also, like many who traveled the Oregon Trail successfully, they had uprooted and relocated before. Their trip by wagon from Massachusetts to Iowa years before gave the experience they needed to be prepared for the undertaking.

Primitive camping in all kinds of weather

Can you imagine walking in the rain, sleeping in a tent on muddy ground? (Tents didn't have flooring at this time.) Sounds miserable, especially with children. Walking over a variety of terrains, usually taking the miles on foot. One day it's freezing cold in the higher altitudes; within a week the dry desert heat is unbearable. Amelia had to feed her family, their hired help and her children, no matter the weather.

Traveling with seven children

She carried her youngest child when the ground was rough. Add to this: sickness. She doesn't dwell on her children's sicknesses, only mentioning which child had the mumps, scarlet fever, or was covered in poison ivy. And she noted the youngest had fallen out of the wagon twice because he was so active. All the other children had daily responsibilities on the journey. She related one fear-induced moment. When they lost their daughter, Lucy. She was watching wagons cross the river while waiting the Knight's turn. These crossings could take days depending on the size of the wagon train. Amelia assumed Lucy was in the wagon with her sister as normal, and the sister thought she was with her mother getting her hair combed. After they crossed the river, they discovered her missing. Lucy had been found by another family. They'd made sure she crossed the river and was reunited with her parents.

The seven Knight children

Indians- not what she expected

Her view of Indians changed as she traveled. Most information regarding the Indian tribes along the trail were based on half-truths and racism. Amelia found the tribes were very helpful. They assisted with their livestock while the wagons forded rivers. Some would swim and guide the horses and livestock for a fee or goods. She writes of a time the wagon train traded with the Indians. She was very impressed with their beadwork. Indians often requested gifts of their supplies or cash in order to pass through their land safely. Most of their requests were reasonable.

Whites took advantage of the travelers

 While the cost the white men charged to ferry them over rivers reached three dollars a wagon near the end of the trip. (Equal to $126.28 in 2026) Remember they had three wagons. These unexpected costs forced Dr. Knight to sell a prized horse in order to have the funds needed to cover the remaining river crossings. The average cost of a horse was one hundred dollars—at least those purchased to pull a wagon. His horse must have sold for far more to secure the rest of their passage to Oregan Territory.

Interesting Trivia

An interesting fact I'd never read before was what they fed their cattle when there was no grazing or hay available. A mash consisting mostly of flour. She was very worried about their oxen and did what she could to help care for them.

 This strong woman wept when one of their oxen died and had to be left by the side of the road with many other. The carnage along the more desolate areas also brought tears. But she remained steadfast and determined.

Cost of living in 1853

To give some context for the diary entry below, let me share a few facts regarding the cost of living in 1853. The average income was between $300 and $500 a year. ($8,418.75-21,046.88 in 2026). The cost of their trip included wagons, supplies, oxen and or mules and horses. A family of four would need $1000 to supply their wagon for the six-month journey. (This doesn't include any additional fees.) The Knights had three wagons pulled by at least two oxen, a family of nine plus an undisclosed number to men to drive the additional wagons and livestock. Oxen valued $25 each ($1,052.34) while mules or horses at around $100 each ($4,229.38). Dr. Joel Knight, we can assume, probably made a bit more money than the average traveler. But still, things got tight. All numbers in bold were added by me to compare to 2026.

She shared the cost of items at a trading post near the end of their journey.  (Tuesday, September 13^th… Drove over some muddy miry ground, and through mud holes and just halted at the first farm to noon and rest awhile and buy feed for the stock, Pay 1.50 per hundred for hay.($61.18) Price of fresh beef 16 to 18 cts a pound,(6.79-7.58) butter ditto one dollar, eggs, one dollar a dozen,($42.09)  onion 4 or 5 dollars per bushel,($149-210.47) all too dear for poor folks, so we have treated ourselves to some small turnips at the rate of 25 cents per dozen,) ($10.53)

Constant wagon upkeep

Amelia did what needed to be done and accepted every difficulty as part of the journey. Often after rains they had to empty their wagons to dry out supplies and make wagon repairs before continuing. Amelia seemed to accept emptying her goods along the road to lighten the load as they travel a part of the price needed to get her family safely to Oregon Territory.

Reading between the lines

It is shocking, yet appropriate for the era, to discover Amelia was pregnant with her eighth child when they left Iowa. She makes no reference to her condition directly until the day her child is born. She mentions stopping on the trail to give birth and then walking with a newborn to their new home.

Think about all the difficulties along the trail and multiply that by ten as her girth grows. She mentions smells bothering her, she gets very emotional over the death of their oxen, and headaches and backache plague her. But speaking about being with child was taboo in 1853, and I suppose writing that in her diary was too. Her husband was a doctor, so that may have given her a bit of peace traveling pregnant. And she'd already traveled from Massachusetts to Iowa years earlier, so she had some idea what to expect. Still, pregnant with eight children to keep safe. Not to mention feeding the hired help. Place her family with a community of at least forty wagons and stress and anxiety abound.

Why I love diaries

Her diary gave me a better picture of life on the Oregon Trail. The bravery and stamina it took to reach their destination. Modern day travelers complain about flight delays, or traffic congestion. If our vehicle breaks down, help is a phone call away. And usually at the end of our journey, we're sleeping in a warm home or hotel with easy access to food and medical facilities.

As you can imagine, they didn't move into a house when they staked their claim. It took time to build a cabin and plant a garden and do what needed to be done.

    Do you think you'd be willing to relocate across country enduring the             same travel conditions as the Knights?

Cindy Ervin Huff, is a multi-published award-winning author in Historical and Contemporary Romance.  She’s a 2018 Selah Finalist. Cindy has a passion to encourage other writers on their journey. When she isn’t writing, she feeds her addiction to reading and enjoys her retirement with her husband of 50 plus years, Charles. Visit her at www.cindyervinhuff.com.