Did Christianity Turn Roman Slavery Upside Down? Maybe.

by Liisa Eyerly

When a novel is set in ancient Rome, it is almost impossible to avoid the subject of slavery. In the Roman Empire, slavery was everywhere. Some historians estimate that as many as one-third of the population was enslaved. Unlike slavery in early America, Roman slavery was not based on race. Masters and slaves were often the same ethnicity, spoke the same language, and sometimes even came from the same region. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Livia%2C_the_wife_of_Augustus%2C_superintending.jpg?

Most Romans saw slavery as a normal part of life. 

Philosophers like Aristotle even argued that some people were “natural slaves.” He believed certain people were meant to do physical labor and were better off being ruled by others. Whether someone became enslaved through war, debt, or punishment, very few people questioned the system itself. Slavery helped power the Roman economy, its armies, and its growing empire. Faustyna E., CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

Then Christianity entered the picture.

The writers of the New Testament never directly called for the end of slavery. The Apostle Paul still told slaves and masters how to live within the system that already existed. But Christianity introduced a dangerous new idea: before God, slave and free were equal. Paul wrote in Galatians 3:28 that in Christ “there is neither slave nor free.” In churches across the empire, slaves worshiped beside masters, shared the Lord’s Supper together, and called each other brothers and sisters. 

.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Monuments_of_the_early_church_%281901%29_%2814783189742%29.jpg?

To most Romans, this sounded absurd. Roman society depended on status, rank, and legal divisions. Christianity quietly challenged those divisions by teaching that a person’s value came from God, not from wealth or social position. 

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/The_early_days_of_Christianity_%281922%29_%2814765643872%29.jpg

That tension appears throughout my novels set in places like Ephesus. In cities loyal to Rome, Christian communities created an uncomfortable gray area where slaves, merchants, soldiers, and nobles gathered as equals. Roman authorities did not always understand this movement, but they recognized it could weaken the social order that held the empire together, and began persecuting the followers of this strange religion.

Christianity did not end Roman slavery overnight. That would take centuries. But it planted ideas about human worth and equality that slowly began to crack the foundations of the system.  


                                                                                              Fortunes of Death

In the bustling streets of ancient Ephesus, fortunes can change in an instant. When one of the city’s wealthiest citizens is found crushed beneath his own triumphant memorial, the powerful elite demand justice—but at what cost? Enigmatic investigator Sabina faces her most perilous case yet. As secrets unravel and enemies close in, she must navigate political intrigue, dark sorcery, and forbidden love to uncover the truth. In a city where everyone has something to hide, who can be trusted? And how far will Sabina go to solve a mystery that could cost her everything?

Liisa’s books have been called a cross between Agatha Christie and Francine Rivers. Her mystery novel, Obedient Unto Death, won the Eric Hoffer First Horizon Award for a debut novel and first place in the Spiritual Fiction category. The sequel, Fortunes of Death, continues the Secrets of Ephesus series, weaving fascinating Christian twists into the historical mystery genre of the first-century Roman Empire. Liisa’s travels to Turkey, Greece, and Italy have enriched her stories with vivid depictions of New Testament culture, history, and people.

Liisa’s journey into writing proves it’s never too late to follow your dreams and share your passion with the world.

Purchase her books at:
Crossriver Media 

• Fortunes of Death
• Obedient Unto Death
• My Amazon book page

Visit Liisa at:
Her website www.LiisaEyerly.com
Author Facebook page at Liisa Eyerly Author page

 

Ancient Rome’s Fast Food: Dining on the Go, 2,000 Years Ago (part 1 0f 2) by Liisa Eyerly

It’s the end of a long day. You’re tired, hungry, and the thought of grocery shopping, chopping vegetables, cooking, and cleaning feels like too much. So, like many of us, you opt for something quick—a drive-through burger, a boxed pizza, or a burrito in a paper bag.

But here’s a fun twist: we’re not the first culture to crave quick meals after a busy day. Ancient Romans had their own version of “fast food,” and it was even more common than ours!

 

Life in the Insulae: A Recipe for Fast Food  

In the centuries surrounding the time of Christ, most city dwellers in Rome and throughout the Empire lived in insulae—densely packed, multi-story apartment blocks. Built mostly of wood, these buildings were notorious fire hazards. With no dedicated police force, Rome relied on vigils, a dual night watch and fire brigade, who patrolled streets with buckets and ladders, always ready to fight the next blaze. Italo Gismondi in GUIDO CALZA: Le origini latine dell'abitazione moderna (I), CC BY-SA 3.0<https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Because fire was such a constant danger, many insulae banned cooking indoors. Imagine living in a tiny apartment with no kitchen! Families could nibble on bread, fruit, cheese, or dried fish at home, but if you wanted a hot meal, you had to step outside.

The Roman Solution: Tabernae and Thermopolia (or thermopolium)
If you couldn’t cook your meals in a private kitchen—where would you go? Many Romans purchased food at a tavern or food stand.

Tabernae were bustling taverns where patrons could grab a drink, gamble, socialize, and eat simple meals. My first book, Obedient Unto Death, has Sabina visiting a taberna, A definite no-no for an upper-class woman. Mentnafunangann, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Thermopolia were the true fast-food counters. These street-side shops featured L-shaped counters with embedded dolia (large clay jars) filled with steaming soups, stews, meats, and vegetables, ready to serve.

Archaeologists in Pompeii have uncovered stunning examples of thermopolia, their walls decorated with vivid frescoes of ducks, fish, and amphorae—ancient menus painted in brilliant colors. Customers didn’t sit and linger; they grabbed a bowl of hot food, maybe a cup of watered wine, and ate on the go.

A thermopolia excavated along a main street in ancient Sardis contained two cooking hearths and ceramic and glass dishes for serving food. An L-shaped masonry bench built outside the main door provided customers with seating in the shaded portico. A double-seat latrine was installed in the opposite corner inside. Wide openings in one corner of the structure likely functioned as serving windows, designed so attendants could pass food and drink directly to patrons gathered beneath the portico.

Ancient Convenience, Familiar Feeling
So the next time you’re waiting in line at McDonald’s, Wendy’s, or Little Caesars, picture a bustling Roman street lined with food counters, steam rising from dolia, and merchants shouting the day’s specials. Ancient Romans may not have had French fries or egg rolls, but they shared our need for quick, affordable meals in a busy world.

History reminds us that “fast food” isn’t a modern invention—it’s a timeless solution for tired, hungry people.

Fortunes of Death

In the bustling streets of ancient Ephesus, fortunes can change in an instant. When one of the city’s wealthiest citizens is found crushed beneath his own triumphant memorial, the powerful elite demand justice—but at what cost? Enigmatic investigator Sabina faces her most perilous case yet. As secrets unravel and enemies close in, she must navigate political intrigue, dark sorcery, and forbidden love to uncover the truth. In a city where everyone has something to hide, who can be trusted? And how far will Sabina go to solve a mystery that could cost her everything?


Liisa’s books have been called a cross between Agatha Christie and Francine Rivers. Her mystery novel, Obedient Unto Death, won the Eric Hoffer First Horizon Award for a debut novel and first place in the Spiritual Fiction category. The sequel, Fortunes of Death, continues the Secrets of Ephesus series, weaving fascinating Christian twists into the historical mystery genre of the first-century Roman Empire. Liisa’s travels to Turkey, Greece, and Italy have enriched her stories with vivid depictions of New Testament culture, history, and people.

Liisa’s journey into writing proves it’s never too late to follow your dreams and share your passion with the world.

Purchase her books at:

Crossriver Media https://www.crossrivermedia.com/product/fortunes-of-death/

Amazon book page https://amzn.to/3Di2gyQ

Visit Liisa at:

Her website www.LiisaEyerly.com

Author Facebook page at Facebook

An Impossible Choice: Standing Firm (part 3 of 3) by Liisa Eyerly

The Dilemma of Early Christians

Christian exclusivity to the Triune God was seen as a direct challenge to the established order. By refusing to participate in the state religion’s ceremonies—whether offering sacrifices to the emperor or participating in civic feasts—Christians were perceived as subversive, anti-social, and potentially traitors. They were seen as insulting the gods, and the Romans believed that this would bring divine retribution upon them, resulting in public disasters such as famine, plague, or earthquakes.

As Tertullian (c. 155–c. 220 AD) put it, the Christians were blamed for every calamity that befell the empire:

“They think the Christians are the cause of every public disaster, of every affliction with which the people are visited. If the Tiber rises as high as the city walls, if the Nile does not send its waters up over the fields, if the heavens give no rain, if there is an earthquake, if there is famine or pestilence, straightway the cry is, 'Away with the Christians to the lions!'”

The Martyrdom of Justin Martyr 

Justin Martyr (c. 100–c. 165 AD), one of the most well-known Christian apologists of the early church, was among those who refused to deny Christ under pressure. Despite writing multiple defenses of Christianity and attempting to convince the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius to cease persecuting Christians, Justin, as you can guess by his name, failed.

(A bearded Justin Martyr presenting an open book to a Roman emperor. Engraving by Jacques Callot.)

After refusing to offer sacrifices to the Roman gods, Justin and some of his students were scourged and beheaded. He was a philosopher who knew the risks but believed that the Christian faith was worth the cost of his life. He is venerated as a saint by the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Lutheran, and Anglican traditions. (Mosaic of the beheading of Justin Martyr)

A Thin Moral Line

Like many early Christians, the believers in my novels must navigate the thin line between survival and martyrdom. The Roman authorities often gave Christians a choice: deny Christ, offer sacrifices to the Roman gods, and live—or remain steadfast in their beliefs and die. Could a Christian compromise and save their life with a little white lie? 

A “white lie” is often described as a harmless or trivial falsehood, usually told to avoid hurting someone’s feelings. But is it always harmless? For a Christian, could lying to save one’s life really be justified if it meant denying their faith?
(15th-century icon of Justin Martyr by Theophanes the Cretan)

“Therefore, whoever confesses Me before men, him I will also confess before My Father who is in heaven. But whoever denies Me before men, him I will also deny before My Father who is in heaven.” (Matt 10:32-33 NKJV)

This teaching made the act of sacrificing to the emperor—or denying Christ in any way—a spiritual betrayal, even if the lie were small.

A Modern Dilemma

The early Christians faced a monumental test of faith, but the persecution of Christians continues in many parts of our world, as documented by groups like Voice of the Martyrs. Christians today still face the decision: lie to save their lives or remain true to their faith? 

Would a little white lie be acceptable, or is there always a moral cost to compromising one’s beliefs?  

-Cairns, Earle E. (1996). "Chapter 7:Christ or Caesar". Christianity Through the Centuries: A History of the Christian Church (Third ed.). Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. ISBN 978-0-310-20812-9.
-Clark, Mark Edward (1983). "Spes in the Early Imperial Cult: "The Hope of Augustus"". Numen. 30 (1): 80–105. doi:10.1163/156852783X00168. JSTOR 3270103
- Whitby, Michael; Streeter, Joseph, eds. (2006). Christian Persecution, Martyrdom, and Orthodoxy GEM de Ste.Croix. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927812-1.
-Jump up to:a b Catherwood, Christopher (2011). "Chapter Three, From Christ to Christendom: The Early Church". A Brief History of the Middle East (Second ed.). London: Constable and Robin Ltd. ISBN 978-1-84901-508-0.
-A Short History of the Early Church, By Harry R. Boer page 45
-Bart D. Ehrman, A Brief Introduction to the New Testament (Oxford University Press 2004 ISBN 978-0-19-536934-2), pp. 313–314
-Bryant, Joseph M. (1993). "The Sect-Church Dynamic and Christian Expansion in the Roman Empire: Persecution, Penitential Discipline, and Schism in Sociological Perspective". The British Journal of Sociology. 44 (2): 303–339. doi:10.2307/591221. JSTOR 591221.

Winner of Eric Hoffer's First Horizon Award, Obedient Unto Death launches the thrilling Secrets of Ephesus mystery series, weaving a captivating Christian twist into the heart of the first-century Roman Empire. When a scribe is murdered during an illicit Christian gathering, an innocent bishop is imprisoned. Sabina, a fearless believer, must navigate a treacherous world of deceit and betrayal to save him. With time running out and execution looming, she risks everything to uncover the truth—before the fragile Christian community is torn apart forever. Will Sabina's courage and faith be enough to stop the injustice before it's too late?

Bio: Liisa Eyerly’s Secrets of Ephesus series adds a Christian twist to first-century Roman Empire mysteries. Her debut novel, Obedient Unto Death (2022), won the Eric Hoffer First Horizon Award and first place in Spiritual Fiction. The second book, Fortunes of Death, launched in October. A lifelong mystery lover, Liisa was inspired by the Apostle Paul’s depiction of early Christians. After careers in teaching, librarianship, and stained glass, she began writing full-time at fifty. Liisa lives in northern Wisconsin with her husband and enjoys pickleball, kayaking, Bible study, and visiting Ancient Roman sites.

Visit me at my website or my FaceBook author page.
or
Purchase my books at: CrossRiver Media and on Amazon
Fortunes of Death
Obedient Unto Death
My Amazon book page

Thank you for reading!

An Impossible Choice: Consequences (part 2 of 3) by Liisa Eyerly

A Clash of Beliefs 

Being a “good” Roman stopped at the altar of the emperor’s temple. The Bible is clear that the worship of idols and false gods is forbidden. In Deuteronomy 5:9, God warns: 

“You shall not make for yourself a carved image—any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down to them nor serve them. For I, the Lord your God, am a jealous God.”

Christian’s refusal to participate in the state religion—which had an essential role in both government and society—was seen as a rejection of Roman identity itself. It was a clash of beliefs—that Rome intended to crush—and that led to the Christian martyrdoms of the time.

In my Secrets of Ephesus mystery novels “Fortunes of Death” and “Powers of Death,” my female sleuth, Sabina, grapples with the expectation of Christian participation at civic festivals, athletic games, and theatrical performances where an offering of incense is required to worship the emperor or pagan deities—an act abhorrent to a Christian.

The Choice: Lie or Die?

For early Christians living under the Roman Empire, the decision was stark: lie or die. The persecution of Christians was not always systematic or official at first, and many local governors were left to decide how to handle Christians. Without clear legal guidelines, they had to rely on their own judgment when Christians were brought before them for trial. This created a moral dilemma for Christians caught in the persecution.

In scholar Joseph Bryant's view, "Nero's mass executions ... set [such] a precedent, and thereafter the mere fact of 'being a Christian' was sufficient for state officials to impose capital punishment".

Pliny the Younger’s Letter to Emperor Trajan

One of the most fascinating documents from this period is a letter written by Pliny the Younger, a Roman governor in Bithynia-Pontus (modern-day Turkey), to Emperor Trajan around 112 AD. In his letter, Pliny describes his dilemma over how to deal with Christians: 

(Pergamon Temple of Zeus, now in Berlin) 

“I have never before participated in trials of Christians, so I do not know what offenses are to be punished or investigated, or to what extent… Is pardon to be granted for repentance, or if a man has once been a Christian is it irrelevant whether he has ceased to be one? Is the name itself to be punished, even without offenses, or only the offenses perpetrated in connection with the name?

I interrogated them as to whether they were Christians; those who confessed I interrogated a second and a third time, threatening them with punishment; those who persisted I ordered executed. (Fragment of an inscription bearing the name Pliny, Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio, Milan)

Those who denied that they were or had been Christians, when they invoked the gods in words dictated by me, offered prayer with incense and wine to your image, and also cursed Christ - none of which those who are really Christians can, it is said, be forced to do - these I thought should be discharged.”

Pliny was unsure whether merely being Christian was enough to warrant punishment or if only specific offenses related to the faith should be punished. If someone recanted and offered incense to the emperor’s image, they were set free. But those who refused were put to death, or if they were Roman citizens, transferred to Rome for a trial.  (Trajan statue, Glyptothek, Munich)

This letter highlights the precarious position of Christians. Would they deny their faith to save their lives, or would they refuse to conform, knowing it could lead to death?

Next time- An Impossible Choice: Standing Firm (part 3 of 3)

-Cairns, Earle E. (1996). "Chapter 7:Christ or Caesar". Christianity Through the Centuries: A History of the Christian Church (Third ed.). Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. ISBN 978-0-310-20812-9.
-Clark, Mark Edward (1983). "Spes in the Early Imperial Cult: "The Hope of Augustus"". Numen. 30 (1): 80–105. doi:10.1163/156852783X00168. JSTOR 3270103 
- Whitby, Michael; Streeter, Joseph, eds. (2006). Christian Persecution, Martyrdom, and Orthodoxy GEM de Ste.Croix. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927812-1. 
-Jump up to:a b Catherwood, Christopher (2011). "Chapter Three, From Christ to Christendom: The Early Church". A Brief History of the Middle East (Second ed.). London: Constable and Robin Ltd. ISBN 978-1-84901-508-0. 
-A Short History of the Early Church, By Harry R. Boer page 45 
-Bart D. Ehrman, A Brief Introduction to the New Testament (Oxford University Press 2004 ISBN 978-0-19-536934-2), pp. 313–314 
-Bryant, Joseph M. (1993). "The Sect-Church Dynamic and Christian Expansion in the Roman Empire: Persecution, Penitential Discipline, and Schism in Sociological Perspective". The British Journal of Sociology. 44 (2): 303–339. doi:10.2307/591221. JSTOR 591221.

Winner of Eric Hoffer's First Horizon Award, Obedient Unto Death launches the thrilling Secrets of Ephesus mystery series, weaving a captivating Christian twist into the heart of the first-century Roman Empire. When a scribe is murdered during an illicit Christian gathering, an innocent bishop is imprisoned. Sabina, a fearless believer, must navigate a treacherous world of deceit and betrayal to save him. With time running out and execution looming, she risks everything to uncover the truth—before the fragile Christian community is torn apart forever. Will Sabina's courage and faith be enough to stop the injustice before it's too late?

Bio: Liisa Eyerly’s Secrets of Ephesus series adds a Christian twist to first-century Roman Empire mysteries. Her debut novel, Obedient Unto Death (2022), won the Eric Hoffer First Horizon Award and first place in Spiritual Fiction. The second book, Fortunes of Death, launched in October. A lifelong mystery lover, Liisa was inspired by the Apostle Paul’s depiction of early Christians. After careers in teaching, librarianship, and stained glass, she began writing full-time at fifty. Liisa lives in northern Wisconsin with her husband and enjoys pickleball, kayaking, Bible study, and visiting Ancient Roman sites.

Visit me at my website or my FaceBook author page.
or 

Purchase my books at: CrossRiver Media and on Amazon
Fortunes of Death
Obedient Unto Death
My Amazon book page

Thank you for reading!

Curses Beyond the Grave: Protecting Roman Tombs from Robbers (part 3)

 By Liisa Eyerly

Greeks and Romans accepted the existence of the soul after death. They believed the dead entered Hades by crossing the river Styx in a boat. The ancients regarded the underworld as a permanent state of murky darkness devoid of joy or conscious will. The afterlife was viewed by most as meaningless, where the dead flitted around without substance or purpose.

Crossing the Styx, illustration by Gustave Dore, 1861. Wikipedia.org

The philosopher Plato believed that the sons of Zeus judged souls branded with the scars of perjuries and crimes. The godless suffered eternal punishment in Tartarus, and the righteous dead were sent to the Isles of the Blessed. However, the gods restricted the Isles to heroes and the godly who achieved great deeds.

File:Goethe Elysium crop.jpg, Wikimedia.org

A competing view was Christianity, which offered hope to all and a belief that death and demons had no dominion over them. When their God, Christ, conquered death after being crucified, buried, and rising from the dead, Christian heroes and commoners alike believed they inherited Jesus’s resurrection. Two thousand years later, they still profess, “I die with Christ and rise with Christ to live eternally with Him.”

There are conflicting accounts about whether pagans believed the dead could contact the living and visa-versa. Food was left at gravesites once a year, hinting at the dead returning to see if their relatives honored the deceased’s memory. What was agreed upon was the serious problem if you didn’t cross the river Styx—you would remain a wandering spirit or ghost, and not a happy one.

People believed these malevolent spirits, including murder victims and those who died young, had more power to intervene with the gods to cause harm. Their ghosts were invoked to carry curses inscribed on tablets to the underworld. The tablets asked for help from particular deities to get revenge on someone, promising offerings at their temple in return. 

The following curse tablets depict a deity with serpents for hair, possibly the Greek goddess Hecate.

ilfattostorico, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The Platonist Apuleius took the existence of daemons for granted. “They populate the air and seem to be formed of air. They experience emotions like humans, and despite this, their minds are rational.”

Plutarch, an earlier Platonist philosopher who died in 119 AD/CE, accepted that daemons existed, served as agents between the gods and humans, and were responsible for many supernatural events including bad fortune. “Some daemons are good, some are evil, but even the good ones can do harmful acts in moments of anger.”

Anyone could hire a professional magician to inscribe a curse on wood, pottery, or metal. Lead was a favorite, but you would inscribe your curse on gold or silver foil for the best chance to persuade the gods to support your cause.

To make the curse extra effective, people would break into tombs and grave sites to place their curse next to a murder victim’s corpse or ashes.

Stefan Kühn, CC BY-SA 3.0 <http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons

Although Christianity condemned these curses and exhorted believers to offer forgiveness, curses from pagans, Jews, and Christians alike have been found on graves throughout the Roman Empire. Curses found on stones above tombs in the catacombs were inscribed to protect the dead. These curses were written in red ochre, a universal warning color, and were sometimes accompanied by diagrams for illiterate grave robbers.

Grave robbing was a significant issue in ancient Rome. Gifts buried with the deceased—such as clothing, jewelry, or favorite household items—were often targets. Even urns containing ashes weren’t safe from theft. Without a police force, fear of arrest was not a significant deterrent. Instead, fear of the deceased’s ghost haunting the thief or experiencing a lingering, painful death served as a more potent threat.

One curse warns: “Anyone who shall open this burial will suffer an evil end.” Another, found at an ancient grave in Beit She’arim, reads: “Jacob the Proselyte vows to curse anybody who would open this grave, so nobody will open it,” as translated by Jonathan Price, a professor of ancient history at Tel Aviv University.

Hecate's previous curse deciphered reads. “Destroy, annihilate, kill, strangle Porcello and his wife Maurilla. Their soul, heart, buttocks, liver…” and shows a mummified Porcello, arms folded (like the deity) and his name written on both arms.

ilfattostorico, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In my books Obedient Unto Death and Fortunes of Death, the pagan father of Sabina, my Christian sleuth, is bound by a deathbed promise to his wife to allow Sabina to worship Christ. Fear of breaking this promise and being haunted by his wife's ghost was real in a world where superstition and magic permeated every aspect of life.

Bibliography

Magic of ancient Romans « IMPERIUM ROMANUM
Brenk, E. (1977). In Mist Apparelled: Religious Themes in Plutarch’s “Moralia” and “Lives”. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 59. ISBN9789004052413.
Tatum, J. (1979). Apuleius and the Golden Ass. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. pp. 28–29.
Mystakidou, Kyriaki; Eleni Tsilika; Efi Parpa; Emmanuel Katsouda; Lambros Vlahos (1 December 2004). “Death and Grief in the Greek Culture”. OMEGA: Journal of Death and Dying. 50 (1): 24. doi:10.2190/YYAU-R4MN-AKKM-T496. S2CID144183546. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
11 of the Most Infamous Ancient Curses in History – Oldest.org
7 Ancient Roman Curses You Can Work into Modern Life | Mental Floss
Ancient Roman Curses Translated – The Language Blog by K International (k-international.com)
Benko, Stephen. Pagan Rome and the Early Christians. Indiana Univ. Press, 1986.
Stern, K. B. (2020). Writing on the wall: Graffiti and the forgotten jews of antiquity. Princeton University Press.
Disturbing Red Painted Curse Discovered In Jerusalem Catacomb | Ancient Origins (ancient-origins.net)
The Passion of Saints Perpetua and Felicity – Wikipedia
Magic in the Greco-Roman world – Wikipedia
Ancient Spells and Charms for the Hapless in Love | Ancient Origins (ancient-origins.net)

In the bustling streets of ancient Ephesus, fortunes can change in an instant. When one of the city’s wealthiest citizens is found crushed beneath his own triumphant memorial, the powerful elite demand justice—but at what cost? Enigmatic investigator Sabina faces her most perilous case yet. As secrets unravel and enemies close in, she must navigate political intrigue, dark sorcery, and forbidden love to uncover the truth. In a city where everyone has something to hide, who can be trusted? And how far will Sabina go to solve a mystery that could cost her everything?

Liisa Eyerly’s Secrets of Ephesus series adds a Christian twist to first-century Roman Empire mysteries. Her debut novel, Obedient Unto Death (2022), won the Eric Hoffer First Horizon Award and first place in Spiritual Fiction. The second book, Fortunes of Death, just launched. A lifelong mystery lover, Liisa was inspired by the Apostle Paul’s depiction of early Christians. After careers in teaching, librarianship, and stained glass, she began writing full-time at fifty. Liisa lives in northern Wisconsin with her husband and enjoys pickleball, Bible study, and visiting Ancient Roman sites.

Liisa's books can be purchased at CrossRiverMedia.com 

at https://www.crossrivermedia.com/product/fortunes-of-death/

Her Amazon book page https://amzn.to/4cs2bok

visit Liisa at her website www.LiisaEyerly.com 

Author Facebook page at Liisa Eyerly Author page

Magic and the Law in Ancient Rome (Part 2 of 3)

By Liisa Eyerly

Have you ever wanted a rival sports team to lose? How about wishing revenge on a failed love relationship or their new love? Not happy with the opposing political view? Did someone ever steal from you or cause you harm? A common response is to wish for a bit of payback. In Ancient Rome, the boundaries between divine will and witchcraft were often blurred, with curses serving as a potent tool for those seeking to influence events or exact revenge. Whether driven by personal grudges, political ambitions, or competitive spirit, Romans frequently turned to curses to address conflicts and desires.

File:Alfredo Tominz – The chariot race in the Circus Maximus.jpg|Alfredo_Tominz_-_The_chariot_race_in_the_Circus_Maximus CC

These curses were inscribed on tablets, known as defixiones, and could be directed at rivals in various domains—sports, love, business, and even legal disputes. The tablets typically invoked the help of spirits or deities, urging them to inflict harm or misfortune on the target. A vivid example of this practice is found in a curse tablet that calls upon a spirit to "torment and kill the horses of the green and white teams" and their charioteers, Clarus, Felix, Primulus, and Romanus, reflecting the fierce competition and high stakes of chariot racing in Roman society.

These curses were not just empty threats; they were believed to carry real power. The act of inscribing the curse, often accompanied by a drawing of an anatomically correct deity, was thought to bind the target to the desired outcome, whether it was a rival's downfall, a lover's return, or a competitor's failure. This belief in the efficacy of curses underscores the complex relationship Romans had with the divine, where the line between seeking divine favor and engaging in witchcraft was often indistinguishable.

Personal grievances also found their way onto curse tablets in Ancient Rome, where people sought to exact severe punishment on those who wronged them. One such tablet laments the theft of two gloves, with the owner, Docimedis, invoking a curse that the thief should lose their mind and eyesight in the goddess's temple.

Roman bath in Bath England.

Bathhouse stealing was common, and another curse reveals the extent of anger and desire for retribution in Roman society: "The human who stole Verio’s cloak or his things... may the worms, cancer, and maggots penetrate his hands, head, feet, as well as his limbs and marrows." The severity of this curse highlights the intense emotions and beliefs in the power of these spells to cause real harm.

Even high-ranking individuals, such as senators, were not immune to these curses. One particularly vicious curse targeted Senator Fistus, with the intent to "Crush, kill Fistus, the senator. May Fistus dilute, languish, sink and may all his limbs dissolve..." This demonstrates the widespread use of curses across all social strata, reflecting the deep-rooted belief in their efficacy.

Defixio tabella with a curse in Greek. Lead, 4th century CE. Rome Baths of Diocletian, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The belief in and practice of magic were not limited to the general populace; even politicians, philosophers, and emperors engaged in these mystical arts. Pliny the Elder, a respected naturalist and writer of the first century AD/CE, observed that magic had become deeply intertwined with medicine, religion, and astrology. He noted its powerful influence, stating that "The senses of men being thus enthralled by three-fold bond, the art of magic has attained an influence so mighty, that at the present day even, it holds sway throughout a great part of the world, and rules the kings of kings in the East."

This observation by Pliny underscores how pervasive and influential magic was in the ancient world, affecting not just common people but the highest echelons of society.

In the 4th century AD, Emperor Constantine I sought to regulate the pervasive use of magic within the Roman Empire by drawing a clear line between what was considered acceptable and what was not. He ruled that “helpful charms,” which were seen as benign, were permissible, while “antagonistic spells” were punishable offenses. This distinction reflected the Roman authorities' broader approach to divination, where certain state-sanctioned practices, such as augury (interpreting bird behavior) and haruspication (examining sacrificed animal entrails), were respected for their role in maintaining the pax deorum, the harmony between the human and divine realms.

A bronze reproduction of the so-called “Liver of Piacenza”, an animal liver engraved with the Etruscan names of the deities connected to each part of the organ. Lokilech, CC BY-SA 3.0 <http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons

In contrast, antagonistic spells, like those inscribed on curse tablets, were deemed dangerous and could be met with severe punishment, including crucifixion. Despite these harsh penalties, the use of curse tablets persisted, underscoring the deep-rooted belief in their power.

Christians in this era often faced accusations of wielding supernatural powers. This fear is vividly captured in the Passion story of Perpetua and Felicitas from the third century, where a Roman judge feared that these Christian women would magically disappear and escape their impending execution at the celebration of Emperor Septimius Severus’s birthday, highlighting the tension between emerging Christian beliefs and entrenched pagan practices.

In a letter, Emperor Hadrian accused Christians, Samaritans, and Jewish leaders of being involved in astrology, soothsaying, and anointing—practices often associated with magic. Christians consistently rejected these accusations, emphasizing their abhorrence of magical arts. This stance is echoed by the second-century church leader Irenaeus, who stated that while Christians did indeed cast out devils, they did so not through "wicked curious arts" like incantations or angelic invocations, but by directing prayers to the Lord and invoking the name of Jesus Christ.

Healing of the lame man Acts 3 :1-8. Internet Archive Book Images, No restrictions, via Wikimedia Commons

Christianity acknowledged the presence of evil spirits and the malevolent influences that existed in the world but firmly distinguished its practices from those of magic. This is illustrated in the Gospel of Luke (10:8-9,17), where Jesus instructs His disciples to heal the sick and proclaim the coming of the Kingdom of God, with the disciples later rejoicing that "even the demons are subject to us in Your name." This passage highlights the Christian belief in the power of Jesus' name to overcome evil, further distancing their faith from the magical practices of the time.

Bibliography

Magic of ancient Romans « IMPERIUM ROMANUM
Brenk, E. (1977). In Mist Apparelled: Religious Themes in Plutarch’s “Moralia” and “Lives”. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 59. ISBN9789004052413.
Tatum, J. (1979). Apuleius and the Golden Ass. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. pp. 28–29.
Mystakidou, Kyriaki; Eleni Tsilika; Efi Parpa; Emmanuel Katsouda; Lambros Vlahos (1 December 2004). “Death and Grief in the Greek Culture”. OMEGA: Journal of Death and Dying. 50 (1): 24. doi:10.2190/YYAU-R4MN-AKKM-T496. S2CID144183546. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
11 of the Most Infamous Ancient Curses in History – Oldest.org
7 Ancient Roman Curses You Can Work into Modern Life | Mental Floss
Ancient Roman Curses Translated – The Language Blog by K International (k-international.com)
Benko, Stephen. Pagan Rome and the Early Christians. Indiana Univ. Press, 1986.
Stern, K. B. (2020). Writing on the wall: Graffiti and the forgotten jews of antiquity. Princeton University Press.
Disturbing Red Painted Curse Discovered In Jerusalem Catacomb | Ancient Origins (ancient-origins.net)
The Passion of Saints Perpetua and Felicity – Wikipedia
Magic in the Greco-Roman world – Wikipedia
Ancient Spells and Charms for the Hapless in Love | Ancient Origins (ancient-origins.net)

In the bustling streets of ancient Ephesus, fortunes can change in an instant. When one of the city’s wealthiest citizens is found crushed beneath his own triumphant memorial, the powerful elite demand justice—but at what cost? Enigmatic investigator Sabina faces her most perilous case yet. As secrets unravel and enemies close in, she must navigate political intrigue, dark sorcery, and forbidden love to uncover the truth. In a city where everyone has something to hide, who can be trusted? And how far will Sabina go to solve a mystery that could cost her everything?

Liisa Eyerly’s Secrets of Ephesus series adds a Christian twist to first-century Roman Empire mysteries. Her debut novel, Obedient Unto Death (2022), won the Eric Hoffer First Horizon Award and first place in Spiritual Fiction. The second book, Fortunes of Death, launched in October. A lifelong mystery lover, Liisa was inspired by the Apostle Paul’s depiction of early Christians. After careers in teaching, librarianship, and stained glass, she began writing full-time at fifty. Liisa lives in northern Wisconsin with her husband and enjoys pickleball, kayaking, Bible study, and visiting Ancient Roman sites.


You can purchase her books at:

at https://www.crossrivermedia.com/product/fortunes-of-death/

Her Amazon book page https://amzn.to/4cs2bok

visit Liisa at her website www.LiisaEyerly.com

Author Facebook page at Liisa Eyerly Author page

Power of Roman Curses (Part 1of 3)

By Liisa Eyerly

Imagine living in a society where a version of Halloween exists in everyday life. I don’t mean candy and costumes but the serious business of navigating malevolent demons, fickle goddesses, evil portents, and the neighbor down the street paying the local magician to curse you.

Temple_of_Diana_at_Ephesus_by_Fedinand_Knab_(1886).png ‎

Ancient Ephesus, the setting of my mystery series, was a melting pot of religious beliefs and practices, where the dominant pagan religions intertwined with the lives of its citizens, offering a sense of security and control through magic and ritual. However, the emergence of Christianity introduced a significant shift, challenging the traditional reliance on the ancient gods. The Apostle Luke records a dramatic moment when Ephesian converts to Christianity, rejecting the old ways, publicly burned their costly books of magical papyri, spells, and incantations. This act was a profound religious declaration and a substantial financial sacrifice, symbolizing their commitment to the new faith and their belief in Christ's power over the unseen forces of the universe.

In my sleuth, Sabina's first-century world, these tensions between the entrenched pagan superstitions of the day and the rising Christian faith create a rich and contentious backdrop where beliefs in magic and the supernatural are constantly at odds with the emerging Christian doctrine. 

Lucio Massari – http://www.otherfood-devos.com/2012/01/is-it-time-for-burning.htm

Archeological artifacts, literature, and ancient laws highlights the deep-rooted belief in curses, magic, and protective rituals across the Greek and Roman Empires from early BC to the late 5th century AD/CE. Abundant evidence exists on buildings and in homes, revealing a society steeped in superstition, where both public spaces and private homes were adorned with symbols and artifacts designed to ward off evil. Among these artifacts are mosaics depicting magical themes, amulets engraved with cryptic symbols, and recipes for herbal concoctions believed to repel malevolent forces. These objects were not just decorative but served as protective measures, deeply ingrained in the daily lives of the people. Blue glass Amulet of Isis -1st century 

 https://clevelandart.org/art/1916.220, CC0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=77279601

One of the most intriguing examples is the Ephesian Letters, a set of six secret words believed to possess extraordinary magical powers. Originating from Ephesus, these words were highly coveted by magicians, who could command substantial fees to engrave them on amulets or recite them in spells to protect against demons and evil spirits.

A mosaic found in the House named “The House of the Evil Eye” includes a blue eye attacked by a bird, dog, trident, sword, and scorpion, Heracles’s struggle with serpents, as a bald dwarf advances to the left. He holds sticks in his hands, one forked. It may be a talisman to ward off evil. A text above him reads “and you too,” a curse meaning “may it happen to you as well.”

Dosseman, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

But why did the average Roman need such devices and spells? The answer lies in the precariousness of life in the ancient world. The natural environment was fraught with dangers—disease, natural disasters, and sudden death were ever-present threats. In an attempt to make sense of these unpredictable forces, people turned to the gods and magical practices for protection.

Many believed that misfortune could result from displeasing a god—perhaps by neglecting temple offerings or failing to observe religious feast days. Others feared that a neighbor, colleague, or even a relative might enlist a magician to curse them out of spite. In this way, magic and superstition offered a semblance of control over the chaotic and often frightening uncertainties of life.

Archeologists have found thousands of curse tablets in countries that were part of the Roman Empire. One found in Greece, contains this curse written by someone jealously in love with a man called Kabeira who tries to damn his wife Zois: (13)

I assign Zois the Eretrian, wife of Kabeira, to Earth and to Hermes — her food, her drink, her sleep, her laughter, her playing of the kithara, her pleasure, her little buttocks, her thinking, her eyes… (Hermes escorts the dead into Hades)

Curse tablets. Pic. By Joyofmuseums – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=65535299

Christians were not immune to the sorcery and superstitions around them. Sabina, the Christian sleuth in my mystery novels Obedient Unto Death and Fortunes of Death, is believed to be under a curse following the death of her husband. When Sabina was born her childhood nurse wove a bracelet to ward off evil and protect the baby in her care. It becomes a significant clue in Fortunes of Death.

The famous naturalist and philosopher Pliny the Elder viewed magic as ineffective and disreputable, yet he states it contains “shadows of truth,” particularly in the “arts of making poisons.” And “there is no one who is not afraid of spells.” He did not recommend amulets and charms for protection but did not deride them either, acknowledging “that it was better to err on the side of caution, for, who knows, a new kind of magic, a magic that really works, may be developed at any time.” 

Bibliography

Magic of ancient Romans « IMPERIUM ROMANUM
Brenk, E. (1977). In Mist Apparelled: Religious Themes in Plutarch’s “Moralia” and “Lives”. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 59. ISBN9789004052413.
Tatum, J. (1979). Apuleius and the Golden Ass. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. pp. 28–29.
Mystakidou, Kyriaki; Eleni Tsilika; Efi Parpa; Emmanuel Katsouda; Lambros Vlahos (1 December 2004). “Death and Grief in the Greek Culture”. OMEGA: Journal of Death and Dying. 50 (1): 24. doi:10.2190/YYAU-R4MN-AKKM-T496. S2CID144183546. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
11 of the Most Infamous Ancient Curses in History – Oldest.org
7 Ancient Roman Curses You Can Work into Modern Life | Mental Floss
Ancient Roman Curses Translated – The Language Blog by K International (k-international.com)
Benko, Stephen. Pagan Rome and the Early Christians. Indiana Univ. Press, 1986.
Stern, K. B. (2020). Writing on the wall: Graffiti and the forgotten jews of antiquity. Princeton University Press.
Disturbing Red Painted Curse Discovered In Jerusalem Catacomb | Ancient Origins (ancient-origins.net)
The Passion of Saints Perpetua and Felicity – Wikipedia
Magic in the Greco-Roman world – Wikipedia
Ancient Spells and Charms for the Hapless in Love | Ancient Origins (ancient-origins.net)

In the bustling streets of ancient Ephesus, fortunes can change in an instant. When one of the city’s wealthiest citizens is found crushed beneath his own triumphant memorial, the powerful elite demand justice—but at what cost? Enigmatic investigator Sabina faces her most perilous case yet. As secrets unravel and enemies close in, she must navigate political intrigue, dark sorcery, and forbidden love to uncover the truth. In a city where everyone has something to hide, who can be trusted? And how far will Sabina go to solve a mystery that could cost her everything?

Liisa Eyerly’s Secrets of Ephesus series adds a Christian twist to first-century Roman Empire mysteries. Her debut novel, Obedient Unto Death (2022), won the Eric Hoffer First Horizon Award and first place in Spiritual Fiction. The second book, Fortunes of Death, launched in October. A lifelong mystery lover, Liisa was inspired by the Apostle Paul’s depiction of early Christians. After careers in teaching, librarianship, and stained glass, she began writing full-time at fifty. Liisa lives in northern Wisconsin with her husband and enjoys pickleball, kayaking, Bible study, and visiting Ancient Roman sites.

You can purchase her books at:

at https://www.crossrivermedia.com/product/fortunes-of-death/

And on her Amazon book page https://amzn.to/4cs2bok

visit Liisa at her website www.LiisaEyerly.com

Author Facebook page at Liisa Eyerly Author page