The Year Without A Summer

By Suzanne Norquist

Last month, I wrote about the Little Ice Age, a period of about 500 years from the 1300s to the 1800s with colder-than-normal temperatures through most of the northern hemisphere.

The “Year Without a Summer” refers to 1816, near the end of the Little Ice Age, when summer failed to arrive in the Eastern United States and most of Europe. Snow and freezing temperatures dominated the months of June, July, and August. Southern states also experienced unseasonably cold temperatures. China and India suffered from monsoons and the resulting floods.

This was before weather forecasts and atmospheric models. No one knew how long the cold would last. When crops froze, people tried to replant that summer only to have them freeze again. For all they knew, the winter could last for many years.

In 1815, Mount Tambora erupted in Indonesia, spewing ash into the atmosphere. It was the largest eruption in over one thousand years. This was after three years of significant volcanic activity worldwide. A fine layer of ash blocked the sun, lowering global temperatures.

At the time, many people blamed sunspots. Haze from the volcanic ash allowed for easier viewing of sunspots with the naked eye. People sought any explanation for the severe cold, and sunspots was as likely a candidate as any.

The ash created a red haze in the sky, particularly noticeable at sunrise and sunset. It shows up in paintings of the time. The coloring gave a hint of despair.

Many areas suffered from famine, leading to rioting and looting. Some regions didn’t experience food shortages, but prices skyrocketed everywhere because crops could be exported.

Food crises only lasted for a season, but the Year Without a Summer created some long term effects around the globe.

In China, widespread flooding caused the cholera bacteria to mutate into a more resilient strain. No one had immunity, and many died. This strain emerged in Asia, and by 1831, it had reached Western Europe. The following year, cases were found in America. Even today, it has not been completely eradicated.

In New England, the harsh conditions pushed westward expansion. Farmers searched for a more hospitable climate. More than ten thousand people moved out of Vermont alone. Who knows how long settlement of the United States would have taken if summer snow hadn’t prodded people to new territories?

Lack of feed for horses caused German inventor Karl Drais to design the velocipede, the precursor to modern bicycles. The human-powered device didn’t require animals or feed for them.

The dreary mood of the cold and red winter skies led to the creation of Frankenstein. Mary Shelley spent a Swiss holiday indoors with her friends, where they made up ghost stories while pondering the unrelenting cold and darkness. She drafted the Frankenstein story there.

Lastly, the Year Without a Summer increased the world’s supply of opium. In China, farmers needed more durable and profitable crops. They turned to poppies. This gave rise to the “Golden Triangle” of opium production.

The sky eventually cleared, and warm weather returned the following year, but the summer of 1816 left lasting impacts on the world.

So, remember, when you are slathering aloe on your sunburn, things could be worse. It could be a another year without a summer.

 

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”Mending Sarah’s Heart” in the Thimbles and Threads Collection

Four historical romances celebrating the arts of sewing and quilting.

Mending Sarah’s Heart by Suzanne Norquist

Rockledge, Colorado, 1884

Sarah seeks a quiet life as a seamstress. She doesn’t need anyone, especially her dead husband’s partner. If only the Emporium of Fashion would stop stealing her customers, and the local hoodlums would leave her sons alone. When she rejects her husband’s share of the mine, his partner Jack seeks to serve her through other means. But will his efforts only push her further away?

 

Suzanne Norquist is the author of two novellas, “A Song for Rose” in A Bouquet of Brides Collection and “Mending Sarah’s Heart” in the Thimbles and Threads Collection. Everything fascinates her. She has worked as a chemist, professor, financial analyst, and even earned a doctorate in economics. Research feeds her curiosity, and she shares the adventure with her readers. She lives in New Mexico with her mining engineer husband and has two grown children. When not writing, she explores the mountains, hikes, and attends kickboxing class.

 

Solving The Mystery of Cholera in Victorian London

 by Edwina Kiernan

During the Victorian era, against the backdrop of industrial revolution and urbanization, a sinister adversary emerged: cholera. 

This deadly disease claimed countless lives, fostering a growing atmosphere of fear and confusion. The quest to understand cholera and its mode of transmission would become a pivotal chapter in the history of public health. 

This article explores the Victorian struggle to comprehend and combat the cholera epidemic.

The Menace

Cholera, a bacterial infection, wreaked havoc throughout Victorian England. Characterized by severe diarrhea and vomiting, cholera led to rapid dehydration and, in many cases, death within hours. This deadly disease struck fear into the hearts of Victorians as its mode of transmission was, as yet, unknown.

Initially, the prevailing belief was that cholera spread through miasma — noxious fumes arising from decomposing organic matter. This misconception hindered efforts made to grasp the true nature of the disease and devise effective preventive measures.

Patients suffering from cholera, 1854

The Mastermind

One of the key figures in unraveling the mystery of cholera transmission was Dr. John Snow, a British physician. Snow challenged the prevailing miasma theory, proposing an alternative hypothesis: cholera’s transmission was waterborne. 

Through meticulous investigation and mapping of cholera cases in London, Snow identified a striking correlation between incidences of the disease and contaminated water sources. His famous map of the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak highlighted a cluster of cases centered around a contaminated public water pump. 

Snow's work laid the foundation for understanding that cholera was not airborne as previously believed, but waterborne — a revolutionary concept that reshaped public health strategies.

John Snow, physician

The Mystery Solved

The Broad Street cholera outbreak, also known as the Golden Square outbreak, was a watershed moment in the history of epidemiology. In the summer of 1854, a densely populated area in London experienced a sudden surge in cholera cases. 

Dr. John Snow's meticulous investigation during this outbreak provided crucial evidence supporting his waterborne transmission theory. By interviewing affected individuals and plotting cases on a map, Snow pinpointed the Broad Street water pump as the epicenter of the outbreak. 

Despite initial skepticism, the local authorities, persuaded by Snow's evidence, removed the pump handle, effectively curbing the spread of the disease. This event marked a turning point in understanding cholera, paving the way for modern epidemiology.

John Snow's cholera outbreak map

The Microbiological Proof

While Snow's epidemiological insights were groundbreaking, confirmation of the waterborne transmission theory came with later advances in microbiology. 

In the late 19th century, scientists like Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur made significant strides in understanding bacteria and their role in infectious diseases. The identification and isolation of the bacterium Vibrio cholerae provided concrete evidence linking contaminated water to the transmission of cholera. 

This microbiological confirmation not only solidified Snow's findings but also paved the way for the development of water sanitation measures that proved critical in controlling the spread of the disease.

The Measures Undertaken:

Armed with the knowledge of cholera's waterborne transmission, Victorian society initiated significant public health reforms. Sanitary measures, such as the improvement of sewage systems and the establishment of clean water supplies, became paramount in preventing cholera outbreaks. 

Legislation and policies aimed at ensuring the purity of public water sources gained prominence, transforming the urban landscape and reducing the prevalence of waterborne diseases. 

The Victorian era's battle against cholera not only revolutionized public health practices but also laid the groundwork for future advancements in understanding and combating infectious diseases.