Famous Instruments in History: The "Arpicembalo" by Bartolomeo Cristofori

Blogger: Amber Lemus

Today in our series on famous instruments in history, we come to the "Arpicembalo" by Bartolomeo Cristofori, otherwise known as the first piano ever invented. 

Bartolomeo Cristofori
Public Domain

Bartolomeo Cristofori was born in Padua in the Republic of Venice on May 4, 1655. His early life is a mystery, although we do know that he was recorded as a member of the household of Nicola Amati in the1680 census, which has led some to believe that he was apprenticed under this famous Violin maker. 

Bartolomeo's story really begins in 1688 at the age of thirty-three. Prince Ferdenando de Medici was searching for a new technician to maintain his many instruments. His previous technician had recently died, and the prince was well-known as a lover and patron of music. How he came across Bartolomeo is quite unknown and not recorded in any history. However, he recruited Cristofori as his new technician, persuading him to take the job with a high salary. According to an interview for a journal at the time, which is one of the only insights we have into Cristofori's life, he really didn't want the job, but Prince Ferdenando de Medici was insistent on wanting no one else but him. Circumstantial evidence indicates that the Prince must have known him as not only a skilled musical technician, but also as a tinkerer and inventor. 

At any rate, Cristofori did accept the job and moved to Florence a month or two later to begin his work. While there, he maintained, transported instruments, kept them in tune, did restoration work on older harpsichords, and on top of all that, experimented with his own instruments. 

The first official record we have of what is known today as the Piano was from an inventory list of the Medici in 1700 which stated: 

An "Arpicembalo" by Bartolomeo Cristofori, of new invention that produces soft and loud, with two sets of strings at unison pitch, with soundboard of cypress without rose..."

Another document referring to this instrument had a note in the margins from the musicians of the Medici court:

 These are the ways in which it is possible to play the Arpicimbalo del piano e forte, invented by Master Bartolomeo Christofani [sic] of Padua in the year 1700, harpsichord maker to the Most Serene Grand Prince Ferdinand of Tuscany. (transl. Stewart Pollens)

It is from this longer reference to the instrument, the Arpicimbalo del piano e forte, that we took "piano forte" and later just "piano" for this instrument. Cristofori went on to make many pianos, selling some of them to high-profile patrons such as the king of Portugal.  Cristofori outlived Prince Ferdenando de Medici but continued working for the Medici court for some time afterward. He also apprenticed a young man by the name of Giovanni Ferrini, who went on to become a famous instrument maker himself, continuing his master's legacy. However, Cristofori and his apprentice must have had a bit of a falling out before his death, because rather than Ferrini assisting him in his sickness and end-of-life care, it was a group of sisters he referred to as the "Dal Mela sisters". He changed his will from bequeathing all his tools to Ferrini and instead left almost everything to the sisters and only a small sum for his apprentice. 

Cristofori died at the age of seventy-five on January 27, 1731, in Florence. 

We don't know how many instruments Cristofori crafted during his lifetime, but three of his pianos still survive today, including this one from the Metropolitan Museum in New York which was made in 1720.

The 1720 Cristofori piano in the Metropolitan Museum in New York
By Shriram Rajagopalan
 - Flickr: Met-32, CC BY 2.0, 

As a lover of piano music and an amateur player myself, I am grateful to Barolomeo Cristofori for his contribution to the world of music through the invention of this beautiful instrument.

*****

Two-time winner of the Christian Indie Award for historical fiction, Amber Lemus inspires hearts through enthralling tales She has a passion for travel, history, books and her Savior. This combination results in what her readers call "historical fiction at its finest".  

She lives near the Ozarks in her "casita" with her prince charming. Between enjoying life as a boy mom, and spinning stories out of soap bubbles, Amber loves to connect with readers and hang out on Goodreads with other bookish peoples.

Amber is a proud member of the American Christian Fiction Writers Association. Visit her online at http://www.amberlemus.com/ and download a FREE story by subscribing to her Newsletter!

Who Was St. Nicholas?

 By Jennifer Uhlarik

MERRY CHRISTMAS! Thank you for carving out a few minutes from family, cooking, gifts, and whatever else your Christmas Day may hold to stop by and visit with us here at Heroes, Heroines, and History. I’m sure I speak for all of us when I say we wish you the best holiday possible!

 

A few days ago, my husband stumbled across an article that said that archaeologists and researchers have found what they hope to be the real sarcophagus of Saint Nicholas in Demre, Antalya, Turkey. This might be a surprising development to you (just as it was to me), since his bones are thought to be held in the Basilica of San Nicola in Bari, Italy—but they were originally buried in his hometown of Myra and later stolen by Italian sailors and moved to the Bari location. Supposedly, this find in Turkey is thought to be the original sarcophagus he was buried in before his bones were moved. Those connected to the find hope they will see his name written or engraved in the sarcophagus to prove that it was, in fact, his.

 

Anyway, all this got me thinking, and I realized that I’ve long known Saint Nicholas was the inspiration for our modern-day Santa Claus, but I don’t know much about the historical figure of St. Nicholas. So…in case you’re like me, I thought I’d share a few details on this Christmas day. 

Victorian image of Santa Claus,
(Found on: Graphics Fairy)

 

Accounts of Saint Nicholas’s life were not recorded for centuries after his death (thought to be on December 6, 343 A.D.), so most of what we know may be embellishments of the truth. Traditionally, Nicholas was said to have been born on March 15, 270 A.D., in what we know today as the Antalya Province of Turkey. His parents, Theophanes and Nonna, were devout Christians who yearned for a child. One source says they prayed and wept for thirty years before Nicholas was born to them. His parents raised him well and set the example of charitable giving to those in need.

 

His early life, in my findings, is mostly lost to history, although it is known that he had an uncle, also named Nicholas, who was an abbot for the local monastery. Young Nicholas looked up to his uncle and spent much time with him and the monastery monks as they did their daily chants and other religious tasks. It is thought that his parents died of some sort of plague, and upon their deaths (when Nicholas was a young teen), he went to live with his uncle. His parents had apparently left him a good inheritance.

 

Nicholas followed in his uncle’s footsteps by taking a pilgrimage to The Holy Land. He supposedly boarded a ship, and quickly, he had a dream of a storm befalling their ship. He told the sailors of his dream, but they dismissed his concerns. Almost immediately, a storm did arise, and as the sailors fought to keep the ship from ruin, Nicholas prayed for the tempest to be calmed. Miraculously, it did grow calm, but not before one sailor fell to the deck from a mast and died. Again, taking to prayer, Nicholas stormed heaven until the sailor was raised from the dead. They made it to their destination, Nicholas walked the Holy Land, and visited many sites where Christ had been in the gospel accounts, including Golgotha—where Jesus was crucified.

Portrait of Bishop Nicholas,
painted by Jaroslav Čermák

 

Upon his return home, Nicholas became the bishop of Myra, supposedly in a rather miraculous way. The old bishop had died, and the others were seeking God for who should replace him. God spoke to one man and said that the first young man to enter the door for the sunrise service the following morning was the one to replace the deceased bishop. The word of God was even so specific as to include the name of the young man. As it turns out, it was Nicholas. The following day, Nicholas, son of Theophanes and Nonna was the first to arrive and was promptly told that he was to become the next bishop. He insisted he was not worthy of such a position, but the men of God at Myra would hear none of it, and Nicholas became the bishop at a young age.

 

He is best known as the patron saint of children and sailors, but he also was known for secret gift-giving and for miracles that came from his intercession, so much so that he became known as Nicholas the Wonderworker. So what sorts of secret gift-giving or miracles was he known for? Again, these stories may very well be embellishments of true happenings, but they make great stories, even if they aren’t completely accurate.

 

In one instance, Nicholas learned of a man with three daughters. The man had once been rich but had fallen on hard times. So hard, in fact, that he would not be able to pay the dowries expected for his daughter to marry well, leaving the three young women uncertain lives of prostitution or other slavery. Nicholas took some of his own inheritance and threw it into the window of the impoverished family’s home. As chance would have it, the money landed in a damp sock that had been left near the fire to dry. Come morning, the father found enough money to marry off his oldest daughter. Not long after, Nicholas returned to the house and again pitched a sizeable bag of money into the window, affording the middle daughter a dowry and assuring her a good marriage. By this time, the father was determined to know who this secret supporter was and waited days until a third bag of money was tossed through the home’s open window. The father rushed out to find Nicholas and thank him, though Nicholas asked the man to keep the secret of his unexpected provision. (Of course, with the first money landing in the sock put near the fire, it is thought this was the basis for our Christmas tradition of leaving gifts inside of stockings hung near the fire).

St. Nicholas at Greek Orthodox
Church (Photo by Petr Kratochvil)

A second incident tells of a time of famine, when Nicholas was greatly concerned for the people of Myra. In one version of the story, Nicholas was praying for grain for his people, and he appeared to a ship captain’s dream, promising him three gold coins if he would bring his shipment of grain to Myra. When the man awoke, he found the three promised coins already in his hand, and went to provide what was requested in the dream. In another version of the same miracle, Nicholas went to a merchant, asking for grain from each of his ships—but the merchant refused because his grain was already weighed, and he would be held accountable for any shortfall. Nicholas assured him there would be no shortfall if he provided grain for the people of Myra. Finally, Nicholas prevailed. The merchant sold him the grain—a hundred bushels from each ship—and went on to report to the buyer. Upon weighing the shipments, there was no shortfall whatsoever, and the grain sold to Nicholas for Myra lasted the full length of the famine, as well as provided enough to plant a good crop.

 

Nicholas’s life is marked by other such stories of justice, faith, and miraculous happenings, making him a beloved figure in the history of the world—and because of them, it is easy to see how he could have become the model, despite the over-commercialized version of our modern-day Santa Claus figure. No matter what, Nicholas was a man of God we can look up to for his love and giving nature.

 

I hope you enjoyed learning a few small facts about this historical man who became legend. And I hope you will have a blessed and merry Christmas and a very Happy New Year! 

Jennifer Uhlarik discovered the western genre as a pre-teen when she swiped the only “horse” book she found on her older brother’s bookshelf. A new love was born. Across the next ten years, she devoured Louis L’Amour westerns and fell in love with the genre. In college at the University of Tampa, she began penning her own story of the Old West. Armed with a B.A. in writing, she has finaled and won in numerous writing competitions, and been on the ECPA best-seller list several times. In addition to writing, she has held jobs as a private business owner, a schoolteacher, a marketing director, and her favorite—a full-time homemaker. Jennifer is active in American Christian Fiction Writers, Women Writing the West, and is a lifetime member of the Florida Writers Association. She lives near Tampa, Florida, with her husband and fur children.

 

Available for Pre-Order (Coming April 1, 2025):

 

Love and Order by Jennifer Uhlarik

 

Separated as children when they were adopted out to different families from an orphan train, the Braddock siblings of Callie, Andie, and Rion have each grown up and taken on various jobs within law enforcement and criminal justice. When the hunt for a serial killer with a long history of murders reunites the brother and sisters in Cambria Springs, Colorado, they find themselves not only in a fight for justice, but also a fight to keep their newly reunited family intact. How will they navigate these challenges when further complicated by unexpected romances?

 

 

Carousels and Their Little Wars + Giveaway

 By Tiffany Amber Stockton

In January, we took a stroll down the language lane of history with some common catch phrases used today and how they got started. You can read last month's post if you missed it.

Today, we're exploring the world of the always delightful ride called the Carousel. Anita Mae Draper did two posts for this blog several years ago on merry-go-rounds and derby race rides, and the post today fills in more historical gaps.

CAROUSEL ORIGINS

The concept of circular motion in the movement of goods, water, or in producing force dates back to B.C. times. Carousels using horses got a bit later start.

What would you say if I told you the carousel has actually been around since the 12th century? Your jaw probably just dropped, or your mouth has formed a small "o." Surprising, right? I thought the same thing when I discovered this fact. The 1100's are considered Medieval times. I don't recall seeing a carousel in any of those stories of King Arthur or Robin Hood or any castle settings. How in the world could such a quaint little carnival ride be this old?

That's easy. The carousel first made its appearance in Turkey and the Arabic region over in the Middle East. It started as a game--albeit a serious one--where horseman tossed clay balls doused in an enormous amount of perfume at each other. Whoever didn't catch the ball had to live with that strong smell until the next time they took a bath. For most of us today, that would be immediately. However, this is medieval times, when bathing wasn't exactly common. :) I would venture to guess that perfume was a rather precious commodity, and this "Little War" as it was called might have been designed intentionally.

Crusaders from Italy and Spain stumbled upon this game and decided to carry the tradition back to their home countries in Europe. The Italians dubbed it "Carosella," which directly translates the original name. Spain referred to it as "Guerrasilla," but when it spread to France, it received the name by which we call it today: Carrousel (only minus one 'r').

In France, the game took on a rather extravagant indulgence. French nobility quickly adapted this clay ball game to their existing war games on horses--including a ring-lancing game--where both riders were dressed to the nines while on horseback. I don't know about you, but riding a horse is challenging enough, let alone dressed in full formal attire. Have you seen the aristocratic fashions of those centuries? I'll take my jeans, plaid shirt and boots over all those fabrics and layers. :)

Anyway, play continued like this for the next 500 years until the 1600s, when they experimented with mechanical or wooden models of horses mounted on spokes originating from a centralized post. They used these models to practice as a way to reduce injury and still enjoy the game. The circular movement was achieved through the use of mules, real horses, and sometimes human labor. Some models were even elaborately designed or custom crafted. That's frivolous aristocracy for you! Luxurious diversions solely for the purpose of entertainment and often at the expense of someone else.

Eventually, the craftsmanship and intricate detailing attracted visitors simply coming to view the artisan's work. In 1729, a British poet added the name "merry-go-round" to the entertaining display, as viewers took pure pleasure and delight in coming to see them. Their popularity spread throughout Europe, and before long, people were wanting to ride the horses themselves.

With the invention of the steam engine around 1870, the availability of more elaborate decorations increased the attraction. Factory manufacturing made them easier to assemble, and their placement as a feature in carnivals or festivals led to widespread popularity all around the world.

NOW IT'S YOUR TURN:

* What is your favorite carousel and where is it located? It could be one you've ridden in another state that left a lasting impression.

* Do you know the name of the British poet who coined the "merry-go-round" name? Who is it?

* If you had to be hit with a perfumed clay ball, what would your preferred scent be?

** Please do not reply via email with any comments. View the blog online and scroll down to the comments section.

Leave answers to these questions or any comments you might have on this post in the comment box below. For those of you who have stuck around this far, I'm sending a FREE autographed book to one person every month from the comments left on each of my blog posts. You never know when your comment will be a winner! Subscribe to comments so you'll know if you've won and need to get me your mailing information.

Come back on the 9th of March for my next foray into historical tidbits to share.

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BIO

Tiffany Amber Stockton has been crafting and embellishing stories since childhood, when she was accused of having a very active imagination and cited with talking entirely too much. Today, she has honed those skills to become an award-winning, best-selling author and speaker who is also a professional copywriter/copyeditor. She loves to share life-changing products and ideas with others to help improve their lives in a variety of ways.

She lives with her husband and fellow author, Stuart Vaughn Stockton, along with their two children and four cats in southeastern Kentucky. In the 20 years she's been a professional writer, she has sold twenty-six (26) books so far and is represented by Tamela Murray of the Steve Laube Agency. You can find her on Facebook and GoodReads.

Guilia Tofana - Poisoner

By TUBS
Wikimedia Commons

Giulia Tofana was born in Palermo, Italy in 1620. Not a lot is known about her early life and much that is known is based on conjecture. There are conflicting stories, but they are so fascinating. (Palermo is almost straight out from the toe of the boot.)





Consider the times—In the 1600’s, a woman was married off early and had no choice or consideration who she would marry. Often, the husband was older and the marriage match was made to further the wealth of both families, with no thought to the character of the husband. Many of these women suffered great abuse with no recourse to leave the marriage. This is why Guilia chose her profession.



Rumor has it that when Guilia was about thirteen, her mother killed her father because of his abuse. Her mother was then put to death. Guilia worked with an apothecary and learned about the various potions and ingredients used to make them. She either developed a formula on her own or learned the formula from her mother to make Aqua Tofana, a deadly poison.

Medicine Bottle
Wikimedia Commons

Aqua Tofana was colorless and odorless. A few drops in a glass of wine or a bowl of soup, administered three to four days in a row would ensure the recipient died a fairly painless death. The symptoms were more like a cold or flu. The exact formula for Aqua Tofana is lost, but it is suspected the main ingredient was arsenic, with possible additions of mercuric chloride, belladonna, and lead.



Guilia also made cosmetics for women, which gave the women an excuse to come to her and their husbands would not suspect any wrongdoing. She bottled Aqua Tofana in perfume bottles and sometimes disguised them as healing oils. The small vials would sit on the woman’s dressing table along with her other cosmetic bottles and no one would suspect. Some of the containers showed the image of Saint Nicholas of Bari, a very pious image.



Starting in 1633 until she was caught in 1651, Guilia is suspected of helping to murder over 600 husbands. She was known to counsel the wives in their comportment so they would act the grieving widow and not show their guilt.



In 1651, one of the women who bought Aqua Tofana from Guilia, changed her mind. At the last minute, she stopped her husband from eating the poisoned soup. When she confessed what she’d done, the husband contacted the authorities. They arrested Guilia and, under torture, she confessed to over 600 deaths. (They are unsure is this is a true number or if she said this because of the torture.)

The Campo del Fiori

In 1659, Guilia was put to death at the Campo de Fiori and subsequently tossed off the wall of the church. (She was rumored to have sought sanctuary in the church at the time of her arrest, but the crowds feared she would poison the water supply and broke in to take her to the authorities.) Guilia’s daughter, Girolama Spera and three helpers, were also put to death. There are also stories of some of Guilia’s clients being arrested and put to death while others were bricked up behind a wall.



This is a horrible story, and so very sad. However, I think you have to consider the plight of women in this time period and the abuse they were subjected to. Perhaps they saw no other way out of their situation. Such a terrible tale can make us thankful for the resources we have today. What do you think? I would love to hear your thoughts on Guilia’s story.

Nancy J Farrier is an award-winning author who lives in Southern Arizona in the Sonoran Desert. She loves the Southwest with its interesting historical past. When Nancy isn’t writing, she loves to read, do needlecraft, play with her cats, and spend time with her family. You can read more about Nancy and her books on her website: nancyjfarrier.com.

HERCULANEUM

Vesuvius’s Other Victim

By Mary Davis

I remember Sunday, May 18, 1980, the day Mount Saint Helens erupted. The winds were such that where I lived didn’t receive the downpour of ash like other areas immediately did. On the other side of the mountains, where my sister attended college, ash rained down. She called and asked how to get ash out of her church dress. So much collected in the college town that she could scoop it off her windowsill as a memory of this fateful day.

So why am I bringing up Mount Saint Helens?

Almost two thousand years ago, in 79 AD Mount Vesuvius erupted. When one hears the name Vesuvius, what pops into most people’s heads? Pompeii. But Pompeii wasn’t the only place destroyed. Pompeii lay south of the volcano while Herculaneum, west of the mountain, was given a far more lethal blast from Vesuvius.

Vesuvius first erupted at 4pm on August 24th, sending a cloud of ash, heat, and debris over Pompeii, burying it and its inhabitants. This is the popular story we hear so much about. But that is not where it ends. (Another source says the eruption had to have taken place on or after October 17th. Either date, the devastation was the same.)

Several miles to the west sat Herculaneum, a hamlet of some 4-5,000 residents. Herculaneum, though about an eighth of the size of Pompeii, boasted more lavish and larger houses. This seems to be where a wealthier class of people lived. When the first eruption happened, Herculaneum could see the several mile high cloud but it was traveling away from them, burying Pompeii.

Ruins of Herculaneum in the foreground,
Ercolano in the middle, and
Mount Vesuvius in the background.

Just after midnight, the volcano belched again out the west side of the mountain. It sent a wave of super heated gas, ash, and lava in Herculaneum’s direction at 160 kilometers an hour. This pyroclastic flow was far more deadly than the first eruption. Hot lava filled Herculaneum’s buildings, supporting walls and roofs as it encased the city. Herculaneum was buried under 20 meters of pumice, ash, and debris. (Pompeii was buried under only four meters of debris.) What all this debris did was preserve organic material that wasn’t found in Pompeii. Things such as wooden doors and support beams, clothing, and food, among other organic matter. Many of the frescoes and mosaics remain intact. All of these artifacts give a much clearer picture into first century Roman life.

Marble Inlay Floor

Statue recovered from Herculaneum

In 1709, long after Mount Vesuvius annihilated Pompeii and Herculaneum and generations had well forgotten there had ever been cities there, a man set out to dig a well. He found far more than he bargained for. This is the traditional story of Herculaneum being discovered. But city remnants were found in earlier earthworks. In 1738, regular excavations began and have continued off and on ever since. Workers would be hired by the wealthy to dig up treasures from the site to bring back to decorate their palaces.

As archeology digs took place in Herculaneum, unlike in Pompeii, bodies weren’t uncovered. It was assumed that, having seen the first eruption, the inhabitants had fled to safety.

Boat Sheds

In the 1980s, as more portions of the village were excavated, over 300 skeletons were discovered in the boat shed area (that is now inland). It is theorized that the people fled to the water in hopes of rescue. Their deaths would have been fast in the super heated gases that swept down from the volcano.
 

Today, still only a small portion of the city has been dug up. It is doubtful the whole of Herculaneum will ever be unearthed as the city of Ercolano sits on top of it.

 

THE DAMSEL’S INTENT (The Quilting Circle Book 3) #TheDamselsIntent #HistoricalRomance #FreeKU #KU #ChristianRomance
Can Nicole learn to be enough of a lady to snag the handsome rancher?
   Nicole Waterby heads down the mountain to fetch herself a husband, not realizing women don’t wear trousers or carry a gun. She has a lot to learn. Rancher Shane Keegan has drifted from one location to another to find a place to belong. When Nicole crosses his path, he wonders if he can have love, but he soon realizes she’s destined for someone better than a saddle tramp. Will love stand a chance while both Nicole and Shane try to be people they’re not?

Free on Kindle Unlimited, or $2.99 to buy ebook.

Get it here: https://www.amazon.com/Damsels-Intent-Quilting-Circle-Book-ebook/dp/B089DTXDCN/ref=sr_1_2?dchild=1&keywords=The+Damsel%27s+Intent&qid=1590863747&s=books&sr=1-2

MARY DAVIS s a bestselling, award-winning novelist of over two dozen titles in both historical and contemporary themes. Her 2018 titles include; "Holly and Ivy" in A Bouquet of Brides Collection, Courting Her Amish Heart, The Widow’s Plight, Courting Her Secret Heart , “Zola’s Cross-Country Adventure” in The MISSAdventure Brides Collection , and Courting Her Prodigal Heart . 2019 titles include The Daughter's Predicament and "Bygones" in Thimbles and Threads. She is a member of ACFW and active in critique groups.

Mary lives in the Pacific Northwest with her husband of over thirty-five years and two cats. She has three adult children and two incredibly adorable grandchildren. Find her online at:

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German History and the Month of May

By Michelle Shocklee

May is such a pleasant month--flowers blooming, baby birds hatching, sunshine without the heat of summer. But the month of May has become a time in history--German history in particular--that doesn't foster warm, pleasant feelings.

RMS Lusitania (undated AP Photo)

May 7, 1915

By early 1915, a threat to British shipping began to emerge out of Germany. U-boats, or submarines, were being used to attack naval vessels. As they achieved  more successes, U-boats began to attack merchant vessels as well. Desperate to gain an advantage on the Atlantic, the German government decided to step up its submarine campaign. On February 4, 1915, Germany declared the seas around the British Isles a war zone. Beginning on February 18, Allied ships in the area would be sunk without warning. Efforts would be taken to avoid sinking neutral ships, but there were no guarantees.

Painting of sinking RMS Lusitania

The RMS Lusitania, a luxury liner, was scheduled to leave NYC on May 1, headed to Liverpool. In an interesting move, the German Embassy issued a warning to all passengers contemplating passage on the Lusitania. It appeared in 50 US newspapers, including New York. It read:

NOTICE! Travelers intending to embark on the Atlantic voyage are reminded that a state of war exists between Germany and her allies and Great Britain and her allies; that the zone of war includes the waters adjacent to the British Isles; that, in accordance with formal notice given by the Imperial German Government, vessels flying the flag of Great Britain, or any of her allies, are liable to destruction in those waters and that travelers sailing in the war zone on the ships of Great Britain or her allies do so at their own risk.
IMPERIAL GERMAN EMBASSY
Washington, D.C. 22 April 1915

Benito Mussolini, Prime Minister of Italy
1922-1943

Despite the danger, the Lusitania embarked on its voyage. On May 7, a German U-boat torpedoed and sank the British liner off the southern coast of Ireland, killing 1,198 people including 128 Americans, out of the nearly 2,000 on board. In the aftermath of the sinking, the German government tried to justify it by claiming in an official statement that she had been armed with guns, and had "large quantities of war material" in her cargo. They also stated that since she was classed as an auxiliary cruiser, Germany had had a right to destroy her regardless of any passengers aboard, and that the warnings issued by the German Embassy before her sailing relieved Germany of any responsibility for the deaths of American citizens aboard.

May 22, 1939

In May of 1939, Italy and Germany agreed to a military and political alliance, giving birth to the Rome-Berlin Axis.
Mussolini coined the nickname “Pact of Steel” (he had also come up with the metaphor of an “axis” binding Rome and Berlin) after reconsidering his first choice, “Pact of Blood,” to describe this historic agreement with Germany. He saw this partnership as not only a defensive alliance, protection from the Western democracies, with whom he anticipated war, but also a source of backing for his Balkan adventures. Both sides were fearful and distrustful of the other, but in September 1940, the Pact of Steel would become the Tripartite Pact, with Japan making up the third constituent of the triad. World War II became the deadliest military conflict in history. An estimated 70–85 million people perished, which was about 3% of the 1940 world population.

May 1945

General Alfred Jodl, Hitler’s military advisor, controller of German High Command and chief of the Operations Staff (center), signs the document of surrender (German Capitulation) of the German armed forces at Rheims in General Eisenhower’s headquarters. He is joined by Major Wilhelm Oxenius (left) and Hans Georg von Friedeburg, Admiral of the Fleet (right). Photo by Keystone/Getty Images

On May 7, 1945, Germany officially surrendered to the Allies, bringing an end to the European conflict in World War II. General Alfred Jodl, representing the German High Command, signed the unconditional surrender of both east and west forces in Rheims, France, which would take effect the following day. As a result, May 8 was declared Victory in Europe--VE--Day, a holiday still celebrated by many European countries. While this is certainly a day to celebrate, one can't help but think of all the lives lost through the long years of war.

(Pictured are the remnants of the German Army in Prague surrendering to Allied forces.)

As someone who has German roots, I'm thankful the evil powers of Germany's past are long gone. I hope to visit that beautiful country someday...and I think I'll go in May!



Your turn: Have you visited Germany? Tell me about it!

Michelle Shocklee is the author of several historical novels. Her work has been included in numerous Chicken Soup for the Soul books, magazines, and blogs. Married to her college sweetheart and the mother of two grown sons, she makes her home in Tennessee, not far from the historical sites she writes about. Visit her online at www.MichellesShocklee.com or visit her Amazon page. 

UNDER THE TULIP TREE

Releasing 9.8.20; Available for PREORDER!

Sixteen-year-old Lorena Leland’s dreams of a rich and fulfilling life as a writer are dashed when the stock market crashes in 1929. Seven years into the Great Depression, Rena’s banker father has retreated into the bottle, her sister is married to a lazy charlatan and gambler, and Rena is an unemployed newspaper reporter. Eager for any writing job, Rena accepts a position interviewing former slaves for the Federal Writers’ Project. There, she meets Frankie Washington, a 101-year-old woman whose honest yet tragic past captivates Rena.

As Frankie recounts her life as a slave, Rena is horrified to learn of all the older woman has endured—especially because Rena’s ancestors owned slaves. While Frankie’s story challenges Rena’s preconceptions about slavery, it also connects the two women whose lives are otherwise separated by age, race, and circumstances. But will this bond of respect, admiration, and friendship be broken by a revelation neither woman sees coming?
 

https://www.tyndale.com/p/under-the-tulip-tree/9781496446077

 

Historic French Chateaux #4: Château de Chambord

By J. M. Hochstetler

Northwest Facade

I don’t know about you, but in the dead of winter I tend to dream about warm climes and romantic locales. So today, in the fourth installment of my series on the historic châteaux of that most romantic of destinations, France, we’re taking a look at Château de Chambord, a magnificent example of French Renaissance architecture and the grandest and most popular château in the Loire Valley. Like other 16th-century châteaux, this one looks like a castle. The central keep forms part of the front wall of a larger compound, four huge bastion towers guard the corners, and there’s a partial moat. But since Chambord was never intended to be used as a fortification, these features are merely decorative and would provide minimal defense in case of enemy attack.

Pierre-Denis Martin (1663-1742)

Chambord was built between 1519 and 1547 as a weekend hunting retreat for François I of France but soon became one of the most ambitious and expensive building projects any French monarch ever undertook. Construction was repeatedly delayed by war, insufficient royal funds, the difficulties in laying the structure’s foundations, and other design issues. Yet when the building was finally completed, the king found the elaborate chateau too drafty and difficult to supply. The loggia, the large high-ceilinged rooms with unglazed windows, and the expansive terrace at the top were completely impractical in northern France’s chilly, damp climate. To make matters worse, Chambord was built in a forest with no villages or other estates nearby, which meant that the only local source of food was game. The château was also left completely unfurnished, so that with up to 2,000 guests and servants attending the king, all necessary supplies including furniture had to be imported. François ended up spending much more time at his chateaux in Amboise and Blois, only staying at Chambord for a total of 72 days during his 32-year reign.

Aerial view

The structure’s design, attributed to Italian architect Domenico da Cortona contributed greatly to the cost. François wanted the palace to reflect Constantinople’s skyline, so its towers were designed to look like 15th-century Milan’s minarets rather than the typical turrets and spires of the period. There are 11 different kinds of towers and 3 types of chimneys, all asymmetrical and framed at the corners by the massive towers. Henry James observed that “the towers, cupolas, the gables, the lanterns, the chimneys, look more like the spires of a city than the salient points of a single building.” As a carpenter’s daughter, I can tell you that all those angles and corners drove up the price! By François’ death in 1547, construction had cost the then astronomical sum of 444,070 livres. Sounds like some of the boondoggles our government has financed, doesn’t it?

View of spiral staircase

Though Chambord is most well-known for its exterior, the interior is just as impressive. Its layout is an example of the French and Italian practice of grouping rooms into suites rather than the medieval style of building rooms to open directly from one into another. The château consists of 440 rooms, 282 fireplaces, and 84 staircases. But its most famous feature is the spectacular double helix staircase dominating the keep’s center. Some experts believe the design was inspired by Leonardo da Vinci, though this isn’t confirmed. John Evelyn described it as “devised with four entries or ascents, which cross one another, so that though four persons meet, they never come in sight, but by small loopholes, till they land.” The stairwell is lighted from above through a lantern tower, the château’s highest, and offers access to innumerable chimneys and sculpted capitals on the building’s upper terraces.

After Francis died in 1547, the château stood empty until 1639, when King Louis XIII gave it to his brother, who embarked on a restoration. Later King Louis XIV had the great keep refurbished as a hunting lodge, furnished the royal apartments, and added a 1,200-horse stable. He used it to entertain for a few weeks each year but by 1685 he’d lost interest. King Louis XV’s father-in-law, the deposed King of Poland lived in it for a while, then Louis gave it to Maurice de Saxe, who installed his military regiment on the property and began to furnish the château with woodwork, parquet floors, ceilings, and private petits cabinets. Those efforts ended with his death in 1750.

Double spiral staircase

Chambord didn’t fare too badly during the French Revolution, though some of the furnishings were sold off. Wall paneling and even floors were taken up and sold for the value of the wood, while doors provided firewood to keep the rooms warm while the sales were going on. The structure remained intact, however, though the château was left empty until Napoleon Bonaparte gave it to a subordinate. During subsequent years it passed through other hands, but finally in 1840 the chateau was registered on the first list of French historical monuments, and the Duke of Bordeaux, grandson of King Charles X, took on its maintenance. He instituted a major restoration and officially opened the château to the public, but his death in 1883 ended these efforts too. In 1915 after the onset of World War I, Chambord was confiscated as enemy property. Ownership returned to France in 1930, and during the World War II artworks from the Louvre and the Château de Compiègne were moved to Chambord for safekeeping.

Another restoration was begun after World War II, and Chambord has been designated a UNESCO world heritage site since 1981. Today extensive formal French-style gardens and water features characteristic of the 16th century surround the château within a 13,000-acre wooded park and game reserve enclosed by a 19-mile long wall. The château is open to the public and receives hundreds of thousands of visitors every year. Flooding in June 2016 damaged the grounds but thankfully the château itself remained undamaged.

Louis XIV’s Ceremonial Bedroom

If you ever make it to the estate for a visit, you can watch a film inside the main building that gives an excellent introduction to the château’s history and architecture. Today the building is sparsely furnished, but visitors can view its 18th-century kitchens on the ground floor and the most interesting rooms including the royal bedchambers on the first floor. From the roof, accessed through the great lantern tower atop the famous spiral staircase, one can marvel at the chateau’s fairytale roofline of turrets, chimneys, cupolas, and domes, and look out across the estate’s vast grounds. Hour-long guided tours in English are offered in the summer along with outdoor spectacles that include birds of prey and an equestrian show with horses and riders decked in colorful 16th-century accoutrements.

It’s nice to see that, although French kings often emptied the public coffers to build their pleasure palaces, today these extraordinary buildings enable France to rake in piles of cash to benefit her citizens, all to the delight of tourists. All I can say is “Vive la France!”

As a lover of European medieval history, I’d be thrilled to take a grand tour of the continent’s castles, but especially those in the historically Germanic areas where my ancestors originated. There are also stunningly romantic castles in Europe’s Slavic regions and elsewhere. If you have a European or English heritage, what areas would you love to visit? And if you ancestry lies elsewhere, please share that information and let us know what places you would love to visit if you were doing genealogical research into your family!

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J. M. Hochstetler is the daughter of Mennonite farmers and a lifelong student of history. She is a professional editor, a publisher, and the author of award-winning historical fiction whose books have been endorsed by bestselling authors such as Lori Benton, Laura Frantz, and Jocelyn Green. Her American Patriot Series is the only comprehensive historical fiction series on the American Revolution. She is also the author of One Holy Night, the Christian Small Publishers 2009 Book of the Year, and co-authored the award-winning Northkill Amish Series with Bob Hostetler.