Entrepreneurs Founded America!

By Tiffany Amber Stockton

Last month, I explored the origination of the cruise ship and how that transitioned into luxury cruising and then cruising for fun as many do today. If you missed that post, you can read it here: https://www.hhhistory.com/2019/12/cruise-ships-of-past.html.

Now, we're at the beginning of another new year, a year which has its fame in a well-known turn of phrase: Hindsight is always 2020. *grins* This can tie into a quote we often reference here on this blog, "Those who don't know the past are doomed to repeat it." I'm not certain "doomed" is always the case, especially when you focus on the positive side of things that happened in the past.

THE AGE OF THE ENTREPRENEUR 

There are many who say America is becoming more and more geared toward the individual entrepreneur and less on the corporate world or company-dictated economy. Economists have predicted by the year 2025, more than 50% of Americans will own a "side gig" or be an entrepreneur of some sort...even if it's only part-time.

I honestly wouldn't mind this at all! Small businesses almost always come with a personal touch that is often overlooked, neglected, or completely missing with larger companies and "big box" stores. Think about your small towns that pretty much run America. What makes them so appealing? Why are they so often the subject of novels and movies? What made small towns thrive and in some cases cause them to become bigger towns or central cities?

The answer? Entrepreneurs.

tall ships

Our nation was founded, quite literally, by entrepreneurs. In 1607 the Virginia Company sent three ships across the Atlantic and unloaded 109 passengers at what became Jamestown, Virginia. They had a goal in mind that didn't quite pan out to become successful. It was a joint-stock company, a relatively new invention that allowed people to invest in enterprises without running the risk of losing everything if the business did not succeed. By limiting liability, corporations greatly increased the number of people who could dare to become entrepreneurs by pooling their resources while avoiding the possibility of ruin.

blacksmith shop

Their attempt to establish American plantations introduced a rather new venture. Unfortunately, this venture also came with a rather steep learning curve, and the Virginia Company made almost every mistake that could be made as other industries developed and new ideas were introduced. Once John Rolfe introduced tobacco, it quickly became an export item and made Virginia rich. Other colonies followed suit, and that eventually led to cotton plantations as well.

cobbler shop

However, plantations required supplies, wagon repairs, horses, medical attention, clothing for the workers, personal grooming, dry goods, legal services, and so much more. They couldn't often get or have all of that on their plantation, so they had to go into town for it. That's where the entrepreneurs were in abundance. And that's where the long-standing tradition of trading goods and services was at its best!

apothecary

The smaller towns could be quite limited in the variety of their businesses. They would start with the basics of a blacksmith, apothecary, cobbler, mercantile, and a grain/feed shop. Some might also feature a candleshop, tailor, barber, doctor, lawyer, seamstress, library, and alehouse. The larger a town grew, the more diverse the businesses became. Whatever the need, there was a business that provided it. If the need existed and an existing business couldn't meet the need, someone would start a new one. If you couldn't afford to pay cash for goods or services, you offered your own goods or services in honest trade.

mercantile

I would love to see America return to this in a greater manner. So much in business has lost the personal touch, the relationships, and the community feel. Who knows? Maybe with this increase in "side gigs," we'll see a little bit of the small business mentality growing again. I know I wouldn't mind!

NOW IT'S YOUR TURN:

* Have you ever owned a small business or undertaken a new venture? What was it?

* What would you do if you could do anything in the world and have a guarantee that it would be profitable for you? Travel? Bake? Invent? Write? You name it!

* If you were one of those 109 passengers who settled Jamestown, what business would you have opened?

* What did you like the most about today's post? What topics would you like to see covered in future posts?

Leave answers to these questions or any comments on the post below. Come back on the 9th of
February for my next appearance.

---

BIO

Tiffany Amber Stockton has been crafting and embellishing stories since childhood, when she was accused of having a very active imagination and cited with talking entirely too much. Today, she has honed those childhood skills to become an award-winning and best-selling author and speaker who is also an advocate for literacy as an educational consultant with Usborne Books. She loves to share life-changing products and ideas with others to help better their lives.

She lives with her husband and fellow author, Stuart Vaughn Stockton, along with their two children and two dogs in Colorado. She has sold twenty (21) books so far and is represented by Tamela Hancock Murray of the Steve Laube Agency. You can find her on Facebook and GoodReads.

Rippavilla Plantation, Spring Hill, Tennessee

By Michelle Shocklee

Photos: Rippavilla Plantation

I'm so pleased to share the fascinating history of another gorgeous plantation home with you! I'd heard about Rippavilla Plantation, located in Spring Hill, Tennessee, but up until last Sunday had not had a chance to see it in person. When friends invited us to join them on a candlelight tour of Rippavilla to commemorate the Battle of Spring Hill, I couldn't pass it up. I was not disappointed!

Nathaniel Francis Cheairs IV

Built in 1855, Rippavilla was the home of Nathaniel and Susan Cheairs. Nathaniel was the youngest of ten children born to Nathaniel III and Sarah Cheairs. Notice the names of his parents: Nathaniel and Sarah. Guess what his grandparents names were? Yep. Nathaniel and Sarah. And his great grandparents too! The tale goes that there were five generations of Nathaniel Cheairs's who married women named Sarah. So you can imagine what his family, especially his father, thought when Nathaniel IV fell in love with a pretty girl named Susan! When Nathaniel announced their engagement, his father offered him $5,000 to break it off and find a wife named Sarah. Can you imagine? Today that would be somewhere in the neighborhood of $230,000.

Susan McKissick Cheairs and daughter

But Nathaniel was very much in love with Susan Peters McKissick, the daughter of a wealthy businessman, and married her on September 2, 1841. Mr. McKissick owned a brickyard and offered to supply all the bricks and slave labor needed to build the young couple a beautiful home. Luckily, Nathaniel's father got over his disappointment about Susan and upon his passing left most of his land to Nathaniel. (His siblings and even his mother contested the will, but it held up in court and he kept the property.) His father even gave them the $5,000 in gold as a wedding gift.

Work began on Rippavilla in 1852 and would continue for three years. The family lived in rooms above the kitchen until the mansion was completed in 1855. Susan gave birth to her fourth and last child soon after moving into their new home.

No one is quite sure why Nathaniel named the home Rippavilla (some stories say it was Rippo Villa), but no matter what it's called, it's a grand and beautiful place. The main house is over 10,000 sq. ft, with lovely rooms and a staircase that stirs my imagination. Like many southern plantations--including Rose Hill, the fictional plantation in my historical novels--the porch ceilings at Rippavilla are painted "haint blue." It was believed that painting the ceiling blue would ward off "haints" or haunts and evil spirits by tricking them into believing the blue was water, because apparently evil spirits can't cross water.

Haint Blue porch ceilings at Rippavilla

The music room at Rippavilla

Staircase at Rippavilla

Rippavilla played a role in the American Civil War. At various times during the war, both the Union Army and the Confederate Army commandeered it. Prior to the Battle of Spring Hill on November 29, 1864, the Confederate Army of Tennessee, commanded by Lt. Gen. John Bell Hood, camped on the grounds of the plantation. After failing to inflict serious damage to the Federal army, the Rebels slept while the Yankees sneaked right past Rippavilla during the night, a tragic mistake that would lead to the Battle of Franklin the following night, resulting in more than 10,000 casualties. After the battle, the house became a temporary hospital and many wounded soldiers were brought there. 

Slave cabin at Rippavilla

Like all southern plantations, Rippavilla has a shameful past involving slaves. I couldn't find any information on the exact number of slaves it took to build Rippavilla nor how many slaves the Cheairs family owned, but it would have probably been in the hundreds. Nathaniel owned more than 1,100 acres at the time and grew all kinds of crops which would have required many, many slaves. A small slave cabin still stands on the land as a reminder that despite the beauty of the grand home, people lived in bondage in its shadow.




If you're ever in the Spring Hill area, I encourage you to stop by Rippavilla and take the tour. It's well worth your time. (As an interesting little side note, Nathaniel Cheairs is buried in Columbia, TN in the Rose Hill cemetery! Sound familiar? 😃 )

My question to you: If you'd been in Nathaniel's shoes, would you have taken the money and found a mate that made your family happy? Or would you have chosen love?

Michelle Shocklee is the award-winning author of The Planter's Daughter and The Widow of Rose Hill. Her historical novella set in the New Mexico Territory is included in The Mail-Order Brides Collection. Michelle and her husband of thirty-one years make their home in Tennessee. Connect with her at www.MichelleShocklee.com.






               

THE WIDOW OF ROSE HILL

Widowed during the war, Natalie Ellis finds herself solely responsible for Rose Hill plantation. When Union troops arrive with a proclamation freeing the slaves, all seems lost. How can she run the plantation without slaves? In order to save her son’s inheritance she strikes a deal with the arrogant, albeit handsome, Colonel Maish. In exchange for use of her family’s property, the army will provide workers to bring in her cotton crop. But as her admiration for the colonel grows, a shocking secret is uncovered. Can she trust him with her heart and her young, fatherless son?

https://www.amazon.com/Michelle-Shocklee/e/B01MYD4TRE/ref=sr_ntt_srch_lnk_1?qid=1486004955&sr=8-1

Christmas on a Plantation

By Michelle Shocklee

Christmas has come and gone once again. I hope you and yours had a wonderful day celebrating the birth of our Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ! As the author of historical fiction set on a Texas cotton plantation, I can't help but wonder about Christmastime back in the 1850s and what it was like for the occupants of the plantation, especially the slaves. Did their celebration include any of the traditions we enjoy today? Were they allowed to celebrate at all? A little research revealed some interesting tidbits I'd like to share with you. 

Plantation Frolic on Christmas Eve. Frank Leslie's Illustrated newspaper, 1857.
(Photo: Library of Congress)

If you were a white plantation owner, your celebration would include a huge feast with roasted turkey and goose, fish, venison, vegetables that were grown on the plantation, and all manner of sweets. A grand tree would be decorated, with wrapped presents beneath its boughs. Friends and family from neighboring plantations would be invited to share in the celebration, often staying overnight. Of course, house slaves would be there to serve you and see to your every need. A good time would be had by all.

Christmas in the quarter looked a bit different.

Like Rose Hill, the fictional cotton plantation in my book, The Planter's Daughter, southern plantations had dozens and dozens of slaves living on the property. A typical week for the slaves involved six days of hard labor, with Sunday being the only day they were allowed to rest, do laundry, and perhaps visit relatives on a neighboring plantation. When Christmas Day arrived, however, many plantation owners allowed their field slaves to not only have the day off, but some went so far as to give their slaves the entire week off. I found this a bit surprising, considering the very nature of slavery and the poor treatment slaves endured the rest of the year. 

As it turns out, my suspicions may be justified. Frederick Douglass, a former slave who became one 

of the most famous black leaders of his day, wrote in his narrative:

From what I know of the effect of these holidays upon the slave, I believe them to be among the most effective means in the hands of the slaveholder in keeping down the spirit of insurrection. Were the slaveholders to abandon this practice, I have not the slightest doubt it would lead to an immediate insurrection among the slaves. These holidays serve as conductors, or safety-valves, to carry off the rebellious spirit of enslaved humanity.

Unfortunately, he was right. Some masters used Christmastime and the promise of food, gifts, and time off to ensure obedience throughout the year. Any hint of rebellion or escape could result in the loss of holiday privileges or even a cancellation of Christmas entirely. Escape was always on the minds of the slaves and the slaveholders, and Christmas often presented the perfect opportunity to leave the plantation. Passes were sometimes issued as gifts, watchmen were occupied, and normal routines were interrupted. Harriet Tubman, the woman who escaped slavery and eventually helped many others to freedom using the Underground Railroad, helped her two brothers escape during Christmas one year. Their master intended to sell them after the holiday, so Harriet risked her own freedom and led them in a journey north, eventually making their way to Canada.

While writing The Planter's Daughter, I relied heavily upon an incredible research book titled I Was Born in Slavery. (To read my post about this little treasure, click here.) True narratives of life as a slave in Texas, many of these former slaves shared memories of Christmastime on the plantation. Millie Ann Smith was born a slave in Rusk County, Texas in 1850. She recalled that on Christmas Day, "Master would fetch us down flour, syrup, sugar, and fresh meat so we could have gingerbread cake." James Boyd recalled the "big dance" they would enjoy at Christmastime with music and singing. If the master was generous, a hog would be killed and set to cook in a pit in the quarter. Gifts were usually new clothes, shoes, food , hand-me-down toys, and even coins and were handed out by the plantation owner or a member of his family. Alcohol was also plentiful on some plantations, and some unscrupulous masters encouraged their slaves to drink heavily as a form of entertainment for the white people.

Many "marriages" took place during Christmastime on a plantation. Perhaps it was the festive atmosphere or the relaxed work schedule, but whatever the reason, many slaves chose to marry (not legally) during this time. Depending on the relationship between the slave and the master, some ceremonies were conducted inside the plantation home, often with the master of the house presiding.

It's easy to understand why the slaves looked forward to Christmas. Although they were subjected to the evils of slavery day after day, some managed to find real joy in the celebration. Former slave Charley Hurt said Christmas was the one day he was happy and could forget he was a slave. I can only hope he and all the others truly understood the source of that happiness and the real freedom we find in Jesus Christ.

Michelle Shocklee is an award-winning author of historical fiction and is a contributor in six Chicken Soup for the Soul books. The Widow of Rose Hill, Book 2 in the historical romance series The Women of Rose Hill, releases February 12, 2018 and is available for pre-order on Amazon. Book 1, The Planter's Daughter, is available now.  

Why Write About Indentured Servitude? ... And a Giveaway!

by Pam Hillman

Each story idea starts with one tiny little puzzle piece. Just one.

A word, a photo of days gone by, a scent, a location, an event. Before The Promise of Breeze Hill became the full-fledged novel that it is now, it was just a single thought to write about an indentured servant.

Why? Fish out of water, maybe. Or having a character who can’t walk away, but then later doesn’t want to walk away. And, since I like to put a bit of a twist on my stories, I wanted the hero to be the one who was placed in this situation.

And to make matters worse, let’s indenture the poor guy to the heroine, but something in his past makes this a really bad thing. I just kept tightening the ropes on him. I also wanted my indentured servant to be an alpha male, with a take-charge attitude. More thinking outside the box turned Connor into a man who has already served a forced seven year indenture, but willingly indentures himself to pay for his four younger brothers' passage from Ireland.

Fairly quickly in this process, I made the decision to move the story to the late 1700s, early 1800s at the latest, as indentured servants weren’t that common in the 19th century. Not completely unheard of, but not the time period we first think of for indentured servants. So, the 18th century is a departure for me as all my other published works fall between 1850-1890. How my hero ended up being Irish, I’ll not be knowing. It just is.

Then I needed to decide where to set this indentured servant story. More than likely, most of us think of indentured servants solidly in the New England states, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Virginia, the Carolinas, etc. But I’m from the South, and New Orleans and Natchez were bustling ports in the 18th century, so it made sense to plop my characters on my home turf.

The story just keeps growing, one puzzle piece at a time.

What would make Connor so adverse to be under the thumb of a woman...something more than just be an alpha male in a time period when women had little say in how things were run? What baggage and problems can I throw at Isabella Bartholomew? And what power (big grin) can I give her? What can push them apart, but draw them together? On and on and on, the pieces just keep falling in to place.

And it all started with the germ of an idea to write about an indentured servant.

Hey, let's have some fun. Solve the puzzle below for a chance to win a signed copy of The Promise of Breeze Hill. Make sure to comment that you'd like to be included in the drawing and leave your email address so that you can be contacted if you win.

Note: Winner will be chosen by Random.org on June 20, 2017 and posted in the comments as well as the HHH sidebar.

From Indentured Servant to Gentleman Farmer and Beyond

by Pam Hillman

Everything comes under scrutiny when writing a historical. Every word, every job, the food the characters ate, how they prepared it. Who they married, when they could marry, and who inherited property.

Every. Single. Thing.

So, go back with me a few years when I got the idea to write a story about an indentured servant who falls in love with his/her master. It’s not uncommon to read stories about female indentured servants being brought to the colonies in the 1700s as brides. As a matter of fact, I’m reading an awesome story right now by Michelle Griep, titled The Captive Heart, with a swoon-worthy hero and a brave heroine. And a little girl who is simply adorable! In Michelle’s story, Eleanor is an indentured servant fresh off the boat who marries her benefactor in order to take care of his little girl.

And while I love an indentured female story, for some twisted reason, I decided to have my hero be the indentured servant for The Promise of Breeze Hill. Oddly enough, it worked. But of course as I delved into the story, I wanted to know how common it was for indentured servants to marry “above their station”.

From my research, indentured servants signed a contract to provide labor for their master for a period of years, usually seven. Their master either paid for their passage to the colonies, or paid the family if the servant was a young age. Most contracts required that servants couldn’t marry during their seven years, but it wasn’t completely unheard of, and by mutual agreement, the master and the servant could void their contract. So, that’s a bit about the law and procedure, but let’s put a face to someone who actually married above their station.

Peter Williamson was born in 1730 Aberdeenshire, Scotland. At an early age, he was sent to live with a maiden aunt in Aberdeen. Around age eight, he was kidnapped and shipped off to the colonies as an indentured servant. It’s important to note that it’s believed that bailiffs colluded with traffickers snatch children off the streets.

When he arrived in Philadelphia, Peter became the servant of Hugh Wilson, another Scotsman, who had also been kidnapped as a boy and later earned his freedom. In Peter’s autobiography, he said Wilson treated him kindly, and it’s highly probable that Wilson sympathized with Peter’s circumstances. When Wilson died shortly before the end of Peter’s seven year indenture, he left his best horse, saddle, and all his clothes to Peter. And, presumably, his freedom.

And, then the happiest of circumstances occurred. At the age of 24, married to the daughter of a wealthy Pennsylvania plantation owner, with a dowry of 200 acres of land, Peter became a gentleman farmer.

If I were writing Peter’s story, he and his wife would have lived happily every after, and that would be the end of my post citing not one, but two, indentured servants who went on to become wealthy — 200 acres of prime farmland in PA is nothing to sneeze at even now— and, in Peter’s case with a wife that came from a wealthy family.

But, in the words of Paul Harvey, here’s the rest of the story.

Unfortunately, in 1754, Peter’s farm was attacked by Indians and he was taken prisoner. After several months as a captive, he escaped and made his way back home to find that his wife had died in his absence. Grief stricken and seeking revenge perhaps, he enlisted in the army to fight in the French and Indian War.

Again, he was captured by the French and sent to England in a prisoner exchange, arriving in November of 1756. For those keeping score, Peter has been kidnapped, sold as an indentured servant, married, taken captive by Indians, widowed, and taken prisoner by the French. All by the age of 26.

Once again in the British Isles, he is discharged from the army (due to a hand injury) and heads back to Aberdeen on foot.

And this is where things get interesting.

In Aberdeen, some influential men find his exploits so fascinating that they encourage him to write about all that has happened to him. In fact, they back him in this endeavor. They sell a thousand copies of the book, and Peter continues his journey to Scotland with ease.

About this time, Peter begins dressing as “Indian Pete”, demonstrating war-cries and war dances, all in order to sell more copies of his book. In Aberdeen, the authorities become involved, accusing him of libel because of his accusations about the bailiffs being involved with his original kidnapping. He was found guilty (no surprise), fined, his books burned, and he was then banished from Aberdeen.

A few years later, his fortunes turned again, and he sued the magistrates who’d originally sued him for slander. He eventually won that case. Then his entrepreneurial spirit enabled him to open a printing shop, create a street directory, be instrumental in the creation of a postal service, a short-lived weekly newspaper, and finally to open a very successful coffee house in Edinburgh where he remained for the rest of his life.

And, yes, he did remarry, but unfortunately the marriage ended in divorce ten years later.

Now, for the grand finale.

What part, if any, of Peter Williamson’s life is fact, and what is fiction? As recently as 1964, an article in the quarterly journal Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies, J. Bennett Nolan qualified Williamson as "one of the greatest liars who ever lived." Other scholars have also questioned large parts of his narrative over the years.

Truth? Or fiction? Who knows.

Regardless, it’s a rollicking good tale and would make an fascinating and fast-paced action adventure, don’t you think?

The Promise of Breeze Hill, available for pre-order from your favorite retailer.

Amazon, B&N, CBD

The Promise of Breeze Hill

Natchez, MS; 1791

Anxious for his brothers to join him on the rugged frontier along the Mississippi River, Connor O’Shea has no choice but to indenture himself as a carpenter in exchange for their passage from Ireland. But when he’s sold to Isabella Bartholomew of Breeze Hill Plantation, Connor fears he’ll repeat past mistakes and vows not to be tempted by the lovely lady.

The responsibilities of running Breeze Hill have fallen on Isabella’s shoulders after her brother was found dead in the swamps along the Natchez Trace and a suspicious fire devastated their crops, almost destroyed their home, and left her father seriously injured. Even with Connor’s help, Isabella fears she’ll lose her family’s plantation. Despite her growing feelings for the handsome Irish carpenter, she seriously considers accepting her wealthy and influential neighbor’s proposal of marriage.

Soon, though, Connor realizes someone is out to eliminate the Bartholomew family. Can he set aside his own feelings to keep Isabella safe?

Want to learn more about Pam? Visit www.pamhillman.com

Rice Production at Middleton Place

To conclude my series of three blogs about the Middleton Place near Charleston, South Carolina, I want to share what I learned about rice production.

When I think of “rice” I think of Asia.  I had no idea rice was a huge crop on plantations.  It was introduced to Middleton Place in the 1690’s.  The Middletons did not have the knowledge, but the slaves they purchased from West Africa did.  These slaves were sought after in America and brought a higher price.  In slave-auction advertisements, such slaves were specifically mentioned. With the help of these slaves rice production in Middleton Place expanded and was perfected. In 1698 the plantation exported 12,000 pound of rice, but that amount grew to 18 million pounds in 1730 and 83 million in 1770! 

Rice was planted in March to mid-April.  The planting and harvesting was determined by the migration of bobolink (also called “rice birds”).  If the rice was  planted the rice too soon or harvested too late, these birds would eat up the seed and the plants.  I enjoy the thought that knowledge was gained by observation of nature.

When rice was first introduced to the plantation, they had to clear the land (removing the timber) and adjust the soil to make each field flat. Unlike other crops that can be planted in hilly conditions, for rice production it was very important to have level fields. The fields would be flooded, and they needed the water level to be constant.

You can plant rice yourself at Middleton PLace

Once the fields were prepared, they were hoed into furrows 10” a part.  The women were responsible for the actual planting.  They put seeds in a hole made by their big toe, and covered over it with their heel or a hoe.  Each slave woman planted ½ acre a day. Obviously they walked barefoot and it was often muddy, with mosquitos and even alligators in the ponds and along the Ashley River.  My husband and I saw several, just lounging on the grass by the ponds!

Once the seeds were planted the flooding began. The Middletons found that they couldn’t use the water of the Ashley River because it was too brackish.  Considering the plantation was right on the river this was unfortunate.  But again, they learned from observation and mistakes. They flooded the fields using wooded trunk gates, allowing water in from inland reservoirs.  The used water was eventually be let out into the river.

The crops were flooded three times.  The First Flooding was called the “Sprout Flow” and lasted six days to let the seeds germinate. Once that was accomplished the water was drained out and the field was kept as dry as possible so the seeds could grow.

When sprouts could be seen from 50 yards away it was time for Second Flooding, called the “Stretch Flow” because it was allowing the plants to stretch.  This flooding lasted for 3-6 days, completely submerging the plants in order to kill off the grasses and drown the bugs.

Then came forty days of dry growing.  During this time the fields would need to be hoed to get rid of weeds and aerate the soil. The fields were marked into ½ acre parcels so each women knew the extent of her responsibilities.

The Third Flooding was called the “Long Flooding” or “Harvest Flow”.  This time water was allowed into the fields a little at a time, which gave the plants support to stand upright as they developed their tassels.

Harvest time was between September and November. The plants were cut off at ground level with rice hooks (hand scythes) and left on the stubble to dry.  Once dry, they were gathered into sheaves and taken to a processing area. 

Sheaves are beaten with flails

The next step was also accomplished by the women.  The Threshing separated the rice from the stalks and was done by beating the sheaves with a flail. 

Then the rice was “fanned” in low edged flat baskets, with the women tossing it slightly into the wind, allowing the chaff to blow away. I remember seeing pictures from Biblical times of this kind of fanning.

At this point, this rough rice could be sold but was not edible yet as each kernel still had the husks on it.

To remove the kernel, the women put the rough rice into a large mortar (a low barrel) and beat it with a pestle.  This took off the husk, and created brown rice.  But to be shipped to Europe, the oily bran covering (the nutritious part) had to be taken off.  I’m not sure why.  Perhaps the oily bran would rot on the long trip to Europe?  The bran was beaten and fanned again to polish the rice. The flat end of the pestle was used for getting the husks off, a rounded end for polishing the kernels—a method used in Africa. Again, they were fanned, then packed in barrels made by coopers at Middleton Place, and shipped down the Ashley River and then to Europe.  

By the late 1700’s there were mechanical threshing and pounding machines that were water-powered and then steam-powered. These mechanical innovations obviously made it possible to cut back on the manual labor.

After harvesting, the fields had to be refinished while they were dry. The stubble was burned and plowed under which added nutrients to the soil. They used oxen and horses to pull the plows. This was the only time animals could be used because while the rice was growing the fields were never dry enough for the weight of animals and regular plows. Again, it was important that the fields were kept totally level so when they were flooded the water was even.  This prep-work took until spring when it was time to plant again.

None of this could have been achieved without the knowledge and work of slaves.  After the Civil War, with the abolition of slave labor, rice production ceased.

Middleton Place offers a tour where you can learn about the rice production, and at certain times, participate. I highly recommend a long visit to this fascinating historical plantation.

NANCY MOSER is the best-selling author of 25 novels, including Love of the Summerfields, Christy Award winner, Time Lottery; Washington’s Lady, Mozart’s Sister, The Journey of Josephine Cain, and Masquerade. Nancy has been married for forty years—to the same man. They have three grown children and five grandchildren, and live in the Midwest. She’s earned a degree in architecture; run a business with her husband; traveled extensively in Europe; and has performed in various theatres and choirs. She knits voraciously, kills all her houseplants, and can wire an electrical fixture without getting shocked. She is a fan of anything antique—humans included. Author Website, Footnotes from History Blog, Author Blog/Inspirational humor, Pinterest, Facebook, Twitter, Good Reads  

Read my latest book Love of the Summerfields: 1880 England. The lives and loves of manor and village intertwine. Earl and shopkeeper, countess and clerk—all will be stunned and transformed by a secret that begs to be revealed. When the Weston family returns to Summerfield Manor at the close of the London social season, both village and manor relax into their normal existence. But for four women, turmoil awaits. Each must battle the restrictions of her position as her faith and character are tested. Each will have a choice to make between her own happiness and a truth that will turn their carefully-ordered world upside down.

 

The Slaves of Middleton Place

By Nancy Moser

Last time I posted, I wrote about the Middleton family who owned the plantation called Middleton Place near Charleston, South Carolina.  Today I’d like to share information about the slaves who lived there, who labored to build, maintain, grow and harvest the crops that provided the revenue to let the plantation survive for hundreds of years.

In the years between the Civil War of the 1860’s and the 1970’s when the plantation was opened to the public, the issue of slavery was an awkward subject.  It’s hard to admit that ancestors were a part of such a despicable institution.  It was the elephant in the room. Yet many slave descendants still live in the area.

It’s hard to know all the facts because there are few written records created by slaves, and even oral history is marginal.  Yet here’s the main fact:  In the late 1600’s Edward Middleton and his brother began a legacy of owning up to 25 plantations in South Carolina encompassing 63,000 acres!  How could they possibly do the work to run these properties?  By owning 3500 slaves.

Rice was the main crop in these low-lying lands, and the Middletons perfected the process.  In 1698 they exported 12,000# of rice, by 1730 they were exporting 18 million pounds, and by 1770 the number had risen to 83 million!  I will share how rice was planted and harvested in an upcoming blog.

The Middleton plantation was also in the timber business, dealing with its byproducts of pitch, turpentine, and tar.  They also made blue dye out of indigo and raised cattle.

Where did the Middletons get their slaves?  The slave trade was going strong in Western Africa even in the 1400’s, but as the Americas were populated by Europeans, the need for laborers grew.  Slavery boomed.  Yet slavery was a part of African life even before the Europeans got there.  Tribes would steal people from enemy tribes, enslaving them.  Yet that was obviously different than the European slave-trade that took people away from their families and homeland, relocating them across the world.

Yet the European slave traders did their business by trading with African rules, goods for slaves.  In the trade the rulers got white sugar, alcohol, iron, copper, and brass objects, carpets, spices, fish hooks, needles, and pins.  And guns.  The European slavers got the rulers’ enemies who’d been captured in battle, along with ivory, gold, and animal hides.  The African rulers brought their people-commodity to the coasts.  Rarely did the European slavers have to go inland to get slaves.

The  journey of the slaves was long and miserable. When they were captured by the rival tribe, the rulers would take them to coastal forts to await the European traders. Then they were tightly packed onto ships for the “Middle Passage” across the Atlantic which could take from 4 weeks to 4 months.   They were fed, but the food was of poor quality.  Fresh water became scarce.  The slaves were forced to exercise, but there was no sanitation so disease spread.  There were many suicides.

The sugar plantations in Brazil were the largest market for slaves, taking 35% (almost 4 million). Other slaves would go to the West Indies, and then to North America. Sixty-percent were dispersed among the Caribbean islands (5.8 million) and 5% (500,000) continued on to North America.  Charleston was the main port of entry.  Add all these numbers up and you have 10.3 million slaves!  By the time the direct importation of slaves from Africa was made illegal (in the 19^th century) most slaves traded were born in the Caribbean or in North America.  They were many generations away from their African roots.

South Carolina plantation owners had their preferences as to the origin of the slaves they purchased.  Slaves from Upper Guinea brought the highest price because they had knowledge of rice cultivation and livestock.  But Calabars, Whydah, Ibo, Bonny from Bights of Benin, and Biafrans were small and slender, “recalcitrant” and had a “tendency to suicide.” Thomas Middleton imported and sold slaves.

In South Carolina the slaves had to adapt to their new circumstances or die.  To preserve their identities and their tribal traditions they created the Cullah-Geechee culture.

Slave clothing was distributed in December and though cloth was loomed at Middleton, some of the cloth was bought and then made into clothes on-site.  Shoes, handkerchiefs, and hats were factory made.  Fancy livery uniforms were made by tailors in Charleston. Coachmen wore the livery and often spread news (back and forth) between the plantations and Charleston.

Rice was the main food and recipes for African pilafs and gumbos were introduced to the Middletons by their slaves and soon became staple Southern dishes.  Other foods brought from Africa were yams, okra, field peas, millet, and peanuts.  There’s a letter from a Middleton daughter who was living in Philadelphia, asking about a slave recipe:  “Pray, dear Mama, send me . . . a receipt for making Pillaw [pilaf] in which Peter [the Middleton cook] excels I think—and which nobody understands here.”

At Middleton Place (and elsewhere) there was a “task system” where each slave was assigned a task—similar to being given a quota for a particular job—and once they’d accomplished that task, their time was their own.  During their free time they could plant private gardens, hunt, fish, and have family and social time.  Some of the tasks were Hoeing Rice—1/2 acre, or Cutting Wood—1 cord, or Mortising Posts: 60 posts.

The slaves brought medicinal knowledge with them, mixing herbs into “physicks”.  These potions were often embraced by the white families.  The slaves made these concoctions in small clay pots, which were broke after using once.  Three-thousand shards of such pots were found in Middleton Place in the 1970’s.  Similar pots were also used for food, and were called Colonoware.

Although the slaves brought their idols and rituals with them, in later generations Christianity was embraced, or a mixture of religious beliefs and traditions.  On Sundays services were attended in the chapel.

Carolina law did not recognize slave marriages, but at the Middleton plantations, they were recognized and celebrated. The Middletons wanted their slaves to marry, for a married slave was less likely to run away.  Sometimes they would marry between plantations, with each spouse living on their own plantation. The husband was allowed to occasionally visit.  Any children born became the property of the wife’s plantation.  Weddings were big celebrations at Middleton Place with feasts of foods supplied by master and prepared by slave cooks.  The slaves at Middleton Place often got three days off at Christmas, a free day after hoeing the rice field or plowing, and after harvest. 

Most slaves at Middleton were field hands—strong men and women.  In the early days, fields had to be cleared of timber and the land made ready for the planting of rice, which is a very labor-intensive crop.  As was representative of the way things were done in Africa (in all civilizations) where tasks were divided by age and gender.  Men cleared the fields, women sowed the seed, cultivated the plants, and harvested them.  And children shooed away birds from the seeds.

The slaves had to develop many skills as the plantations tried to be as self-sufficient as possible: carpenters, brick-layers (bricks were made on-site), engineers, coachmen, gardeners, seamstresses, and cooks to name a few. Most slaves combined old African ways with American methods. Schooners from Middleton would go up and down the Ashley River taking and bringing goods to other plantations and to town. These schooners were manned by slaves and even captained by slaves. Slave labor built the Middleton Place homes and other buildings. Slaves developed their specialty talents that were often subbed out to other plantations. Many took pride in their skills and their work.

The lush gardens and ponds at Middleton Place were created by slave labor, with exotic plants grown in the greenhouse, and the terraces and formal gardens toiled and tended.  House servants included house “wenches” (maids), cooks, seamstresses, a barber/doctor, hairdressers, and house servants who served like a butler and housekeeper.  It’s interesting to note that in a 1793 estate inventory, a slave Daphne, who was a seamstress, is listed as being worth 5£ more than her husband, the house’s steward/barber/doctor.  Having a talent had its advantages, as the slaves were able to feel some satisfaction in using their skills, not just laboring.

Another problem for the master was too many slaves with not enough to do. In such a case, Henry Middleton moved some of his slaves from Middleton Place to one of his other plantations.  There are some interesting notations by Henry in 1779 for slaves moved from South Carolina to Georgia and East Florida:  “Wanney:  Gone with the Hessians to York”, “Pompey: Gone to back part of So Carolina”, “Will:  Used to stay with Miss MacIntosh”, and “Buck: Died at the lines in Charleston”, along with various mentions of death due to small pox.

The Middletons also had a home in Charleston (16 miles away).  Henry Middleton was the governor of South Carolina and took house slaves with him to Charleston.  When the family traveled away from both homes, the domestic slaves staying at the Charleston house could be hired out for special dinners and such.  Law said they had to wear a metal badge that said SERVANT and specified the work they could perform.  These badges cost between $2 and $7.  The master took the money, but often gave a portion to the slave.  Rarely masters gave the slaves all the money.

What happened with slaves that were too young or too old to work?  They were often assigned tasks that would support the other workers.  They took care of the slave children, and made meals for the workers that were taken out to the fields. 

Perhaps the hardest job on the plantation—not physically, but emotionally—was that of being a “Driver”. When I first saw this term I thought they meant a coach-driver.  But no, it’s a slave-driver, the slave whose job it was to oversee the work.  These were men with administrative skills.  They needed to be leaders, who were strong, smart, and able to motivate others.  They were not the same as the overseer—who was white.  But they were the middle-man between master and overseer, and the slaves.  They were both respected and feared.  And the hard task of punishment was passed to them—usually whipping.  The only person feared more was the white overseer. The Driver was trusted by the master, yet not completely since he was one of “them.”

How did slaves rebel?  They slowed down their work.  But with the task-system this often backfired as they needed to get done a certain amount of work in the day and slowing it down gave them less free time. 

At Middleton Place, in “Eliza’s cabin”—the cabin used after the Civil War by a freed slave—is open to visit.  There you can see a list of the slaves of the Middletons, divided by plantation and years, listing their names, often their ages, their skill, and what they were worth.  Included is a list of six escaped slaves in the mid-18^th century, listing the reward for their capture.  Studying the lists the most expensive slave was Carolina, worth 200£ with most men listed at about 100£ except for Sam who was worth 150.  Most women were worth between 30 and 100.  Smaller sums (10 and 15£) probably were children.  In 1815, the driver July was listed as worth $1000, and in 1846 “ole Tyra” had a worth of zero. 

Skills are listed:  “John:  A very fine bricklayer”, “Die his Wife a Washer ill in Bed.”, “John Baptist, Bricklayer (old Fellow)” “Mary, House wench & Pastry Cook”, and under “Beck, seamstress” was this notation:  “Her son Insane supposed to be rather an encumbrance” had a listed worth of zero. 

Although these lists are disturbing because they reveal the bold existence of slavery, the lists also give names to all the anonymous slaves, making them real.  And I love some of the names:  Quash, Doll, Superannuat’d , Cuffy,, Die, Amerinthia, Seipio, Rhynah, Mingo, Shallow, Quaco , Big Rhina, Walney.

During times of war slaves were used for the Cause. In the Revolutionary War they were used to build fortified earth works around Charleston (both sides used them). Some escaped and joined Hessian regiments, where they were known as the Black Loyalists.  After the war they were evacuated to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick as freemen.  In the Civil War the Confederates used slaves to repair railroads and make Charleston fortifications.  

Born a slave, Annette Mays lived as a freewoman
at Middleton Place until the 1930's.

Though the slaves adjusted, they obviously wanted to be free.  Once they were on the plantations, many tried to escape, which forced a South Carolina law that stated no slave could be away from the plantation without being accompanied by a white man, or unless he wore livery (meaning they were a coachman.) If runaways were caught they were punished by their owners or sent to the “Sugar house”, Charleston’s workhouse.  Owners would put announcements of runaways in the newspapers, with detailed descriptions and listing the reward offered.  Here is an ad by Henry Middleton in 1753:  “Runaway . . .a negro fellow named Prince, who is a shoemaker by trade, & is well known in Charles Town having been formerly a drummer to one of the companies of the regiment.”  Another ad from 1761:  “…shoulders, the scar of which is still visible.  Another is a middle-sized fellow, of a yellowish complexion, much marked in the face with his country marks.  The last fellow answers to the name of Scipio, the short fellow is named Will, & the other Jacob.  They had on white negro-cloth jackets & breeches, & caps of the same & carried with them their blankets & an axe…” 

Some slaves were set free by the Middletons.  Henry Middleton set free his slave Caesar upon his death in 1784.  Here is a quote from Henry’s will:  “I manumit & forever set free my Servant Caesar, and as a Testimony of his former good Conduct I direct my Executors to place out on Loan one thousand Pounds Currency and pay him annually the Interest thereof during his Life…”

The Middleton plantations were occupied by Union forces in the early days of the Civil War.  Slaves were known as “contraband” and were encouraged to join the U.S. Army.  Charleston fell to Union forces on February 17, 1865.  Many of the Middleton slaves rejoiced and asked to go with the Union soldiers.

Middleton Place was burned by Union soldiers, and many of the slaves were loaded onto schooners and flats and went to Charleston. After the war, some returned to Middleton and worked on the plantation as free men, for payment of housing and a token wage. Others in Charleston got jobs and raised families.  Times were hard and there was much to rebuild, but the economy had been forever compromised.  There was no way to plant and harvest rice without slave labor, so the plantation faltered as it tried to adjust to the post-war world.  Williams Middleton attempted to mine phosphate, and many former slaves worked for him, but that work was almost more grueling that field work and the business failed.

Middleton Place fell into disrepair until Mr. and Mrs. J.J. Pringle Smith (descendants of the Middleton family) took it over in the 1920’s.  The once manicured lawns and gardens were overgrown and the entire place in need of repair.  Mrs. Pringle Smith worked tirelessly to reclaim the gardens.  Many descendants of slaves worked for the Smiths in the house and gardens.

In 2006 there was a reunion of people with ties to Middleton Place—black and white.  Three hundred people attended.  Middleton descendent Mason Smith said it was “good to be together with others from whom we had traditionally been separated by law and custom.”  After the 3-day event, one of the Middleton Place Foundation trustees said, “How could we ever take Middleton Place family reunion back to Euro-American only?  We have leapt over to a new place with a new momentum and new life.  We have affirmed a larger family, and established a Place to Begin—indeed.”

For more information I highly recommend visiting Middleton Place (see my blog post here.)  Also informational is the book Beyondthe Fields, Slavery at Middleton Place.

NANCY MOSER is the best-selling author of 25 novels, including Love of the Summerfields, Christy Award winner, Time Lottery; Washington’s Lady, Mozart’s Sister, The Journey of Josephine Cain, and Masquerade. Nancy has been married for forty years—to the same man. They have three grown children and five grandchildren, and live in the Midwest. She’s earned a degree in architecture; run a business with her husband; traveled extensively in Europe; and has performed in various theatres and choirs. She knits voraciously, kills all her houseplants, and can wire an electrical fixture without getting shocked. She is a fan of anything antique—humans included. Author Website, Footnotes from History Blog, Author Blog/Inspirational humor, Pinterest, Facebook, Twitter, Good Reads  

Read my latest book Love of the Summerfields: 1880 England. The lives and loves of manor and village intertwine. Earl and shopkeeper, countess and clerk—all will be stunned and transformed by a secret that begs to be revealed. When the Weston family returns to Summerfield Manor at the close of the London social season, both village and manor relax into their normal existence. But for four women, turmoil awaits. Each must battle the restrictions of her position as her faith and character are tested. Each will have a choice to make between her own happiness and a truth that will turn their carefully-ordered world upside down.